The Policy Orientation of Turkey’s Current Climate Change Strategy

In 2015, the united nations adopted ties (11), ensuring responsible consumption and

the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to production (12), combating climate change and

be achieved by 2030. These goals were formu- its impacts (13), conserving marine resources

lated in 17 points that address different, but (14), promoting sustainable use of terrestrial

complementary, issues: eliminating poverty (1), ecosystems (15), enabling peaceful and inclu-

eradicating hunger (2), achieving good health sive societies (16), and enhancing internatio-

and well-being (3), ensuring quality educati- nal cooperation (17). Goal 13 on climate action

on (4), attaining gender equality (5), ensuring proposes to combat climate change through five

access to clean water and sanitation to all (6), different fronts: strengthening resilience and

offering affordable and clean energy (7), genera- adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards,

ting decent work and economic growth (8), bu- integrating climate change measures into nati-

ilding quality and resilient industry, innovating onal policies, improving education on climate

base and infrastructure (9), reducing inequality change, implementing the United Nations Fra-

(10), creating sustainable cities and communi- mework Convention on Climate Change, and

Climate change affects both nature and people’s social lives.

enabling effective climate change-related plan- lities (UN DESA, 2021cUN DESA (2021c). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Considering that cli-

ning and management (Kılkış, 2021; UN DESA, mate change will lead to fundamental problems

2021a; UN DESA, 2021b.) such as lack of resources, food insecurity, shorta-

Indeed, one cannot reduce the task of combat- ges of safe drinking water, sheltering problems,

ting climate change to Goal 13 alone (UN DESA; and increasing poverty rates, health problems,

n.d.). Climate change, which is increasingly felt and contagious diseases (UN, 2021UN DESA (2021c). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

through extreme climatic events such as drough- This article aims to provide a comprehensive

ts, violent storms, floods, and extreme warmth, understanding of Turkey’s approach to climate

affects both nature and people’s social lives. Spe- change on its path to an ecological civilisation.

cifically, the United Nations (UN) highlights the How does Turkey perceive climate change? What

connection between environmental and social proposals does Turkey offer to tackle climate

problems and Sustainable Development Goals change? How have Turkey’s perception and po-

(SDG). Their suggestions for environmental pro- licy proposals on this matter taken their current

tection include the fight against social inequa- shape?

The article uses qualitative content analysis Climate Change: A Brief Conceptual and

and descriptive statistics to address these qu- Historical Context

estions. The first section of this article provides The basic requirement of a healthy society is safe

conceptual and historical background for the human relations and equality in income distribu-

study of climate change and climate policy; the tion, as well as the protection of the natural, cultu-

second uses this background to examine the ral, and aesthetic environment. There may be ine-

case of Turkey. Our data analysis divides the vitable disruptions to the well-being of societies

texts under study into coding segments in light and those regarding the environment may have

of our research aims and conceptual framework. a significant impact. Addressing environmental

With the aim of analysing Turkey’s current cli- problems means deciding between the needs of

mate strategy, we have included in our content today’s generations and those of the future. The

analysis strategic and development plans along inability to evaluate national resources in line with

with climate-specific strategy papers, reports, the interests of the country, failure to maintain the

and action plans: National Strategic Plan (2019- environmental impact of increasing production,

2023), 5-Year Development Plans, National and the lack of international cooperation cause

Climate Change Strategy (2010-2023), Climate environmental problems to reach dangerous di-

Change Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan mensions. Discussing the well-being of societies

(2011-2023), 2nd Voluntary National Review amounts to discussing an environmental problem

(2019), National Energy Efficiency Action Plan that surfaced to the agendas of all nations - clima-

2017-2023, National Energy Efficiency Paper te change.

(2012-2023). Climate change is driven by the excessive ac-

cumulation of natural greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Indeed, anthropogenic sources inc-

The inability to evaluate national rease the concentration of greenhouse gases that

disrupt the solar radiation pattern and cause gloresources in line with the interests bal warming. Global warming, in turn, affects of the country, failure to maintain earth-based natural patterns and systems, ocean

the environmental impact of currents, weather, and increases sea levels due to

increasing production, and the lack the melting of ice. In 1994, the United Nations

of international cooperation cause Framework Convention on Climate Change (UN-

environmental problems to reach FCCC) represented the first global declaration of

dangerous dimensions. climate change with its ultimate goal stated as the

stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropoge-

Our content analysis is supplemented with nic interference with the climate system (IPCC,

descriptive statistical analysis based on data 2021).

derived from the Turkish Statistical Institute The UNFCCC is strengthened by the Inter-

(TURKSTAT) and the BP Statistical Review of governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),

World Energy. which is the scientific board for global data collec-

President of Turkey, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, joined the Climate Summit organized by the US on April 22, 2021. (Presidency of Turkey website)

tion and analysis, with its regular reportage acting col coming into effect, and had its own final dec-

as a guide to the UNFCCC’s activities. According laration called the “Copenhagen Accord”.

to the IPCC, climate change efforts require three To date, there are two subsequent global ag-

distinct divisions: assessment, which represents reements following the UNFCCC. The first is

data-based scientific assumptions on the current the Kyoto Protocol and the second is the Pa-

situation of a country; mitigation, decreasing the ris Agreement. These two agreements, althou-

amount of greenhouse gases emitted from various gh serving the same objective, are different in

sources, i.e. transport, buildings or industry; and approach and expectations from the signatory

adaptation, to set measures for sudden and extre- countries. Two striking differences are that the

me changes of weather patterns, including short- Kyoto Protocol is legally binding and focuses

or long-term effects on regions (IPCC, 2021IPCC (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). on industrialised and developed countries while

Countries in the UNFCCC come together at the Paris Agreement is not legally binding and

an annual conference, the “Conference of the targets all signatory countries. Hence, when the

Parties” (COP). COP 26 is scheduled to be held ultimate goal is considered, the Kyoto Protocol

in Glasgow on November 26th, 2021, where go- is targeting a 5% decrease from the 1990 emis-

vernment representatives, academia, NGOs, and sion levels, while the Paris Agreement demands

others will gather to discuss the current situation. countries to make their Intended National Decla-

The Copenhagen Summit in 2009, COP 15, was ration of Contributions (INDCs), with all aiming

significant, for it coincided with the Kyoto Proto- for a 1.5°C decrease from preindustrial levels.

The Kyoto Protocol introduced various climate rating climate change measures into national po-

change finance mechanisms, such as the introdu- licies, strategies and planning as well as improving

ction of carbon trade systems and their respective education, awareness-raising and human and ins-

mandatory and voluntary markets (Low & Boett- titutional capacity on climate change mitigation,

cher, 2020). adaptation, impact reduction and early warning”

(UN DESA, 2021aUN DESA (2021c). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Although the UN confirmed the existence of

Considering the importance of carbon climate change through government-level agre-

dioxide emissions as a chief factor ements and scientific data from the IPCC, there

in contributing to climate change, is still climate change scepticism individuals, bu-

the gravity of this issue can be better sinesses, and even in governments. Nevertheless,

grasped by looking at Turkey’s carbon the push towards action resulted in a wide range

dioxide emissions over the years. In of reactions from businesses and countries. For

the 1970-2019 period, Turkey’s carbon these groups, there are three main types of reacti-

ons. The first group is the proactive businesses or dioxide emissions rose from 39.28 governments that firmly believe in climate change million tonnes to 383.26 million tonnes, and its various risks. The second group would be which points to a nearly 876% increase those that, while they recognise that climate chanin total emissions. ge is happening, prefer to watch from a distance to inspect and see what others will do before they Around the same time as the Paris Agreement, make their own decisions. Finally, the last group the United Nations for another global agreement, is the climate deniers, who believe that business the Sustainable Development Goals, as the succan go on as usual (Low & Boettcher, 2020Low & Boettcher (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Over cessor of the Millennium Development Goals. the years, governments have followed their own The Millennium Development Goals provided a paths, especially those governments that are gloset of 8 goals that covered areas from hunger to bal impactors. environment, but the Sustainable Development

Goals outlined a total of 17 goals for the period of Turkey’s Approach to Climate Change:

2015-2030. Direct and indirect (i.e. Goal 7 on cle- A Content Analysis

an and affordable energy) effects of climate were The issue of climate change concerns all countries

discussed in goals, but Goal 13, “Climate Acti- of the world. As a temperate zone country,

on”, was exclusively dedicated to climate change. however, Turkey is among the countries expected

The targets and indicators for SDG 13 briefly su- to be most affected by climate change. Considering

ggested urgent action to combat climate change the importance of carbon dioxide emissions as a

and its impacts. chief factor in contributing to climate change,

SDG 13 suggests “strengthening resilience and the gravity of this issue can be better grasped

adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and by looking at Turkey’s carbon dioxide emissions

natural disasters in all countries focusing on the over the years. In the 1970-2019 period, Turkey’s

climate change adaptation”. It also targets “integ- carbon dioxide emissions rose from 39.28 million

Figure 1. Turkey’s carbon dioxide emissions, million tonnes (1965-2019as Formulated in Turkey’s Second Voluntary National Review (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.) https://knoema.com tonnes to 383.26 million tonnes, which points to a nearly 876% increase in total emissions (BP Statistical Review, 2021BP Statistical Review (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Figure 1). Turkey has not remained completely unresponsive to these developments. Turkey’s expenditure on the protection of ambient air and climate has seen a considerable increase, from 338,615,571 TL to 1,139,067,476 TL between 2013 and 2019, which corresponds to an over 236% increase overall (TURKSTAT, 2021TURKSTAT (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Figure 2). Moreover, TURKSTAT data reveals that the sectors with the greatest share in

Turkey’s carbon dioxide emissions are, ranked Figure 2. Turkey’s environmental protection

in order of importance: “electricity, gas, steam expenditure for the protection of ambient air and

climate (TRY)

and air conditioning supply”, “manufacturing”, https://data.tuik.gov.tr

“agriculture, forestry and fishing”, and “households” (TURKSTAT, 2021TURKSTAT (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Figure 3). Indeed, these areas represent priority sectors to be focused on in the fight against climate change. Examining Turkey’s strategy documents and action plans would provide a firm understanding of the countries’ priorities regarding climate change. National strategic plans set the general course for the policies to be pursued by Turkey. Figure 3. Annual greenhouse gas emissions by

In other words, they formulate the essential economic activity (million tonnes CO2 equivalent)

principles, performance criteria, and methods to https//:data.tuik.gov.tr

be adopted in implementing Turkey’s mediumto long-term goals. It follows that these plans also set the course for Turkey’s strategies and action plans in combatting climate change. By way of example, Turkey’s Strategic Plan for the period 2019-2023 adopts the core mission of placing economic and social development within a sustainability framework (TC SBB, 2019a:42). The plan indicates that this mission is formulated based on SDGs and will shape Turkey’s essential policy documents to come. With this aim in mind, the plan also announces the creation of the

Turkey’s first floating Solar Power Plant was activated in 2017. (Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality website)

National Sustainable Development Commission, 2019: 71). This plan is Turkey’s first Five-Year

which will ensure the implementation of this Development Plan to contain an entire section on the

mission (TC SBB, 2019a:45, 49). environment, which marked the creation of the Prime

Turkey’s 5-Year Development Plans provide a Ministry Undersecretariat of the Environment. The

better picture of its short- to medium-term approach framework of sustainable development was adopted

to environmental policy and climate change. The in the Fifth 5-Year Development Plan (1990-1994),

First and Second 5-Year Development Plans (1963- strengthening Turkey’s focus on the environment

1973) featured both direct and indirect mentions of and sustainability. Further key cases include the

the environmental question. However, the task of Ninth 5-Year Development Plan (2007-2013),

“environmental protection” was not incorporated which brought to the forefront the links between

into the 5-Year Development Plans until the 1972 the environment and future generations, and the

UN Stockholm Conference on the environment, Tenth 5-Year Development Plan (2014-2018), which

which later shaped the content of the Third 5-Year accentuated the notion of “green growth” (Akkuş

Development Plan (1973-1977) (Akkuş Dağdeviren, Dağdeviren, 2019Akkuş Dağdeviren, Dağdeviren (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

In the meantime, it detects adverse factors that

Evidence from 2013-2019 suggests prevent the integrated development of economic

that Turkey’s environmental protection strategies and climate policies. These factors

expenditure for research and include inefficient policies, poor institutional

development rose from 83.577.115 TRY coordination, and the lack of technical

to 217.983.249 TRY, which corresponds capabilities. Proposed solutions for policy

to an over 160 % increase. improvement address five main areas: water

resources management, agricultural sector and

A more in-depth picture of Turkey’s approach food security, ecosystem services, biodiversity

to climate change can be obtained by focusing and forestry, natural disaster risk management,

on key official documents that specifically and public health. Table 1 offers a more detailed

address this individual issue. A case in point is breakdown of the actions to be implemented in

Turkey’s National Climate Change Adaptation this framework, where research and development

Strategy and Action Plan, which was prepared appear as a dominant theme (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti

in 2011 by the Ministry of Environment and Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı, 2011). At this point,

Urbanisation (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Çevre ve it is noteworthy to mention that TURKSTAT

Şehircilik Bakanlığı, 2011). This document seeks data confirm Turkey’s accentuation of research

to contribute to Turkey’s efforts at increasing and development. Evidence from 2013-2019

adaptation to climate change as part of the UN suggests that Turkey’s environmental protection

Joint Program on Enhancing the Capacity of expenditure for research and development

Turkey. The document identifies Turkey’s key rose from 83.577.115 TRY to 217.983.249 TRY,

sectors that affect climate change and regions which corresponds to an over 160% increase

affected by climate change-related strains. (TURKSTAT 2021TURKSTAT (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Figure 4).

Table 1. Objectives Formulated in Turkey’s Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan (2011-2023)

I. WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Objective 2.2. Developing financing policies and

practices. Main Objective 1. Integrating adaptation to the

impacts of climate change into water resource management Main Objective 3. Developing and expanding R&D

policies. and scientific studies to ensure adaptation to the impacts

of climate change in water resources management. Objective 1.1. Ensuring the integration of adaptation to

climate change into existing strategies, plans, and legislation. Objective 3.1. Strengthening existing systems and

establishing new systems to monitor the effects of climate Main Objective 2. Strengthening water resources change. management capacity, interagency cooperation and

coordination with regard to adaptation to climate change. Objective 3.2. Identifying the vulnerability of

management of water resources and coastal management Objective 2.1. Increasing the institutional capacities of against climate change, developing alternative adaptation agencies and organisations that are authorised and related options, making periodical revisions based on monitoring to the management of water resources. results.

Main Objective 4. Integrating management of water Objective 2.5. Determining the socioeconomic

resources in water basins for adaptation to climate impacts of climate change on the agriculture sector.

change. Main Objective 3. Sustainable planning of water use

Objective 4.1. Planning basin-based development in agriculture.

of water resources with a holistic approach that offers Objective 3.1. Increasing the effectiveness of water flexibility in meeting the changing consumer demands. management in agriculture. Objective 4.2. Addressing urban water management Main Objective 4. Protecting soil and agricultural from the perspective of adaptation to climate change. biodiversity against the impacts of climate change. Main Objective 5. Planning renewable energy Objective 4.1. Protecting the physical, chemical, resources, taking into consideration the impacts of and biological efficiency of soil against climate change climate change and the sustainability of the ecosystem impacts. services oriented to increase resilience to climate

change. Objective 4.2. Protecting agricultural biodiversity

and resources for adaptation to the impacts of climate

Objective 5.1. Planning and operating hydraulic change.

and geothermal energy resources with a climate change

adaptation perspective. Objective 4.3. Completing land consolidation

activities for the purpose of increasing agricultural

II. AGRICULTURE SECTOR AND efficiency in efforts to adapt to climate change.

FOOD SECURITY Main Objective 5. Developing institutional capacity

Main Objective 1. Integrating climate change and improving interagency cooperation in Turkey with

adaptation into the agriculture and food security regard to adaptation alternatives in agriculture.

policies.

Objective 5.1. Strengthening interagency

Objective 1.1. Reviewing existing strategy and action cooperation and developing the capacities of MFAL and

plans as well as legal arrangements from a perspective of its attached and affiliated organisations with regard to

adaptation to climate change. combating climate change and adaptation.

Objective 1.2. Reviewing signed protocols between Objective 5.2. Increasing the awareness of civil

institutions from a perspective of adaptation to climate society on the effects of climate change on the agriculture

change. sector and the adaptation approaches.

Main Objective 2. Developing and expanding R&D III. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES,

and scientific studies to identify the impacts of climate BIODIVERSITY AND FORESTRY

change on agriculture and to ensure adaptation to

climate change. Main Objective 1. Of the climate change adaptation

approach to ecosystem services, biodiversity, and

Objective 2.1. Developing and expanding R&D forestry policies.

activities for effective crop, soil, and water management. Objective 1.1. Reviewing the existing strategies in

Objective 2.2. Increasing the capacities and numbers terms of adaptation to the impacts of climate change.

of organisations carrying out R&D and scientific studies. Main Objective 2. Identifying and monitoring the

Objective 2.3. Developing a ‘Soil and Land Database impacts of climate change on biodiversity and ecosystem

and Land Information System’ taking into consideration services.

the effects of climate change. Objective 2.1. Identifying and monitoring the effects Objective 2.4. Conducting and monitoring disaster of climate change on species in forest land. analysis for agricultural droughts.

Objective 2.2. Identifying the land-use changes due Objective 2.2. Establishing community-based

to the impacts of climate change in forest land. disaster management in combating disaster risks that

may arise due to climate change ı. Objective 2.3. Monitoring the health of forest

ecosystems. Objective 2.3. Continuing the training activities that

will increase public awareness and participation with Objective 2.4. Carrying out R&D activities oriented regard to the disaster and risk impacts that may arise due to identify and monitor the effects of climate changes in to climate change. protected areas. V. PUBLIC HEALTH Objective 2.5. Taking into consideration the climate

adaptation activities in the socio-economic development Main Objective 1. Identifying the existing and

of forest villagers, and thereby supporting rural future effects and risks of climate change on public

development. health.

Objective 2.6. Identifying and monitoring the effects Objective 1.1. Researching the effects of extreme

of climate change on the mountain, steppe, inland water, weather events on public health.

marine ecosystems, and the ecosystem services they Objective 1.2. Conducting research on the relation provide; and developing measures for adaptation to between climate change and health risks. climate change. Main Objective 2. Developing the capacity to combat Objective 2.7. Integrating climate change adaptation risks originating from climate change in the national into the marine and coastal zone management healthcare system. framework. Objective 2.1. Developing emergency response Objective 2.8. Protection of forests against fires. action plans in risky areas and supplying the necessary

IV. NATURAL DISASTER RISK infrastructure.

MANAGEMENT Objective 2.2. Strengthening the capacities of health

Main Objective 1. Identifying threats and risks for sector organisations against health risks arising due to

management of natural disasters caused by climate climate change.

change. VI. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES IN

Objective 1.1. Identifying risks of natural disasters ADAPTATION

caused by climate change, such as floods, overflows, Main Objective 1. Ensuring adaptation to climate

avalanches, landslides etc. change on crosscutting issues.

Objective 1.2. Reviewing the legislation on natural Objective 1.1. Integration of adaptation to climate

disasters caused by climate change and determining change into national development plans, programs, and

implementation principles. policies.

Main Objective 2. Strengthening response Objective 1.2. Identifying the required amount

mechanisms for natural disasters caused by climate of financing for implementing the Climate Change

change. Adaptation Strategy.

Objective 2.1. Strengthening the capacities of Objective 1.3. Organising training, awareness-

local public organisations with regard to responding raising, and informative activities to develop the capacity

to natural disasters caused by climate change to combat and adapt to climate change.

and reaching the level of being able to make field Objective 1.4. Developing R&D capacity with regard

exercises. to climate change adaptation.

Şekil 4: Turkey’s environmental protection expenditure for research and development (TRY)

https://datatuik.gov.tr 60-80% of the targets set in SDG 13 (TC SBB, 2019b.).

According to the review, the links between SDGs are strong in the context of Turkey, and Turkey’s performance in SDG 13 stands out as one of the strongest areas where the impact of targets set by other SDGs is observed. On average, 55% of Turkey’s SDG 13 targets are impacted by targets set by other SDGs, whereas SDG 13’s targets affect 53% of the targets set by other SDGs. The review indicates that Turkey’s performance in SDG 13 can be strengthened by consolidating the physical and human infrastructure with the legal-institutional superstructure (TC

Conducted in 2019, the 2nd National Voluntary SBB, 2019a). The review that there is a considerable

Review detected “medium-level” compliance of increase in the frequency of disasters and greenhouse

Turkey’s policies and strategies, legislation, project gas emissions that Turkey’s struggle against climate

inventory, and implementation with SDG 13 on change should devote greater efforts to adaptation to

climate action. This corresponds to a 40-60% range. climate change, policy integration, awareness-rising,

The level of compliance for Turkey’s institutional and capacity increase, which are examined in greater

framework is described as “medium to advanced”, i.e. detail in Table 2.

Table 2. Policies to be implemented in the context of SDG 13 on Climate Action (as Formulated in Turkey’s Second Voluntary National Review, 2019as Formulated in Turkey’s Second Voluntary National Review (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)

Improving the implementation of measures for Protecting qualified agricultural lands and forest

reductions in sectors causing greenhouse gas emissions to areas, in particular, natural protected areas with special

the extent of national conditions. importance; combatting against desertification and erosion

effective; using pastures more effectively and efficiently by Ensuring the control of greenhouse gas emissions speeding up pasture rehabilitation activities; developing a through new technologies and energy efficiency range of products resilient to drought and taking preventive practices and reduction of loss and illegal use rates in measures by monitoring their effects on soil resources in electricity. the context of climate adaptation in agriculture. Developing the technical and institutional capacity Prioritising transport systems that provide energy needed to analyse risks in priority areas to increase resilience efficiency, the use of clean fuel, and environmentallyto climate risks. friendly vehicles. Identifying and prioritising the impacts of climate Increasing the share of the railway and maritime change and adaptation needs on a national, local, and transport in freight transportation. sectoral basis. Expanding energy efficiency practices in buildings. Developing climate change mitigation and adaptation

capacity at the local level. Making demand management effective by developing

public transport in urban transportation and benefiting Increasing practices in water basins on water saving, from the practices of intelligent transportation systems in combatting against drought, and pollution prevention by traffic management. evaluating the impacts of climate change on water quantity

and quality. Expanding integrated waste management practices.

A closer look at the 2nd National Voluntary Review after the publication of the Document”. Other targets

reveals that clean energy and energy efficiency include: decreasing energy demand and carbon

occupy the forefront of Turkey’s climate policy. The emissions of buildings; promoting sustainable

same goes for Turkey’s National Climate Change environment-friendly buildings using renewable

Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan (2011-2023) energy sources; providing market transformation

(Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı, of energy-efficient products; increasing efficiency

2011). In this regard, it would be worthwhile to also in production, transmission, and distribution of

examine Turkey’s sustainable energy strategy and electricity; decreasing energy losses and harmful

action plans. For example, the 2012-2023 Energy environmental emissions; reducing unit fossil fuel

Efficiency Strategy (Enerji Verimliliği Strateji consumption of motorised vehicles; increasing share

Belgesi, 2012) aims for a considerable increase in of public transportation in highways, sea roads, and

Turkey’s energy efficiency by 2023. This strategy railroads; preventing unnecessary fuel consumption

was prepared in cooperation with the public in urban transportation; using energy effectively

sector, private sectors, and civil society groups, and efficiently in the public sector; strengthening

and accentuates the need for maintaining this institutional capacities and collaborations; increasing

participatory cooperation scheme. the use of state of the art technology and awareness

Turkey’s Energy Efficiency Strategy complements activities; and developing financial mechanisms

priority goals set by national strategies and (Enerji Verimliliği Strateji Belgesi, 2012Enerji Verimliliği Strateji Belgesi (2012). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

development plans, particularly concerning the task of The 2017-2023 National Energy Efficiency Action

combating climate change, environmental protection, Plan (Ulusal Enerji Verimliliği Eylem Planı 2017-2023,

ensuring the sustainability and affordability of energy 2017) draws attention to the chief factors increasing

costs, and constraining national energy dependency. energy consumption in the developing world, which

Meanwhile, this strategy document supports the include population growth, rising prosperity, the

goals stated in Turkey’s Ninth 5-Year Development strengthening service sector, and industrialisation.

Plan regarding the development of energy and

transportation infrastructure (Enerji Verimliliği Figure 5. Turkey’s wind energy generation (Terawatt-hours)

https://knoema.com Strateji Belgesi, 2012). The 2012-2023 Energy Efficiency Strategy opens with a general assessment of Turkey’s performance in energy efficiency and emphasizes the need for decreasing energy demand. It also identifies the key sectors and activities that lead to national energy demand, which include the building sector, manufacturing, transportation, and motorised vehicles. The main targets set in this strategy document are to “decrease at least 20% of the amount of energy consumed per GDP of Turkey in the year 2023” and “to reduce energy intensity in each industry sub-sector... [by] at least 10% ... within the 10 years

Figure 6: Turkey’s solar energy generation (Terawatt-hours) https://knoema.com transport, industry, technology, agriculture, and other overlapping areas (Ulusal Enerji Verimliliği, 2017Ulusal Enerji Verimliliği (2017). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Realistically, Turkey has a very long way to go before it can implement many of the targets set in its climate and energy strategies. One should also keep in mind that it has a poor record of environmental protection, even before tackling climate change. This being said, Turkey has already achieved concrete results through its energy strategy and action plans. Particularly, Turkey is on the verge of a clean energy revolution in the area of wind, solar, and hydroelectric Figure 7: Turkey’s hydroelectricity generation (Terawatt-hours) https://knoema.com energy generation. Turkey’s wind energy production rose from 0.01 terawatts/hour in 1998 to 21.7 terawatt/hour in 2019, which points to a 216% increase overall (Figure 5). Furthermore, Turkey has joined the top ten countries with the highest wind energy potential and equipment production. It exports its wind energy equipment to 44 countries in 6 different regions, whose revenues make up 70% of this sector (Cagatay, & Kaya, 2020Cagatay, & Kaya (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). In the period 2010-2019, Turkey’s solar energy production rose from 0 to 10.92 terawatts/hour, which corresponds to a 236% increase (Figure 6). Importantly, Turkey has become the world’s third leader in solar water

These factors led to a 46% increase in energy heating capacity after China and the United States

consumption for the period 2005-2015. The action (Renewables 2020 Global Status Report, 2020).

plan rearticulates Turkey’s will to enhance energy Finally, Turkey’s hydroelectric production has

efficiency by reference to the Energy Efficiency Law experienced an annual average increase of 9.88% in

adopted in 2007, the 2012-2023 Energy Efficiency the period 1970-2019, from 3.3 terawatts/hour to

Strategy, and the National Climate Change Strategy 89.16 terawatts/hour (BP Statistical Review, 2021;

(Ulusal Enerji Verimliliği, 2017Ulusal Enerji Verimliliği (2017). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). The main target Figure 7). As such, Turkey rose to the second rank

of the 2017-2023 National Energy Efficiency Action in hydroelectric power generation in Europe and

Plan is “to reduce the primary energy consumption the ninth rank in the world (“Turkey 2nd among”,

of Turkey by 14% by 2023 … [and] to achieve savings 2020). Turkey’s innovations in environmental and

23.9 Mtoe (Millions of tonnes of oil equivalent) energy implementations –achieved through growing

cumulatively by 2023.” (Ulusal Enerji Verimliliği, public support for research and development and

2017). This target involves 55 different policy technology– have played an important role in

actions that focus on buildings and services, energy, achieving these results.

Turkey clearly recognizes the need to strengthen ties between the environment and future generations on the road to “green development”.

Review and Discussion society. Moreover, Turkey clearly recognizes the need

to strengthen ties between the environment and future To conclude, a fuller understanding of Turkey’s generations on the road to “green development”. This climate change strategy can be gained through being said, the documents acknowledge the current an integrative analysis of its recent Strategic Plan obstacles faced on this road, particularly those and Five-Year Plans in tandem with its key official relating to scant institutional, financial, and technical documents related to climate change strategy and capabilities. Finally, the documents frequently action plans. Our analysis suggests that Turkey’s emphasise sustainable energy, energy efficiency,

approach to climate change centres on an ambitious and clean energy technologies, thus pointing to the

mission that places economic and social development relevance of Turkey’s energy strategy and action

within a sustainability framework. This mission plans. In this area, Turkey’s efforts in improving its

springs from Turkey’s growing percipience that the institutional, financial, and technical capabilities

key to success in the struggle against climate change seem to have borne their first fruits, though there

is in pursuing these efforts in coordination with is still a very long way to go to fully implement the

the Sustainable Development Goals. The selected intended strategies and action plans. A promising

documents reflect a growing awareness that these development is that enhanced public support for

efforts can be enhanced through closer cooperation clean energy technologies and production has led to

between the public sector, private sectors, and civil Turkey becoming a leading actor in clean energy.

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