2020 AND ITS AFTERMATH HAVE BEEN AN political mutual trust, economic cooperation, and
important period for Chinese and Turkish history cultural exchanges compared with the previous
and the development of their bilateral relations. 2020 40 years (Chen, 2020Chen (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). However, in contrast to
marks the 10th anniversary of the establishment of the frequent official contacts, ordinary people’s views
China-Turkey strategic partnership. Furthermore, on each country have not kept pace with this new
2021 marks the 50th anniversary of diplomatic development. In the Turks' eyes, China's image is still
relations between China and Turkey and the 100th connected with negative events, and Japan and South
anniversary of the founding of the Communist Party Korea's positive image in Turkey are still way ahead
of China. In 2023, Turkey will have seen a century of that of China. Due to historical reasons, China’s
since its founding. Facing the COVID-19 pandemic understanding of Turkey is not sufficient either. The
and its unprecedented negative consequences, China construction of the “Belt and Road” Initiative mainly
and Turkey are constantly struggling to realize their addresses connectivity in policy, infrastructure,
“Chinese Dream” and “Turkish Dream”, respectively. trade, finance, and people-to-people exchange.
They both strive to choose an independent road. Arguably, the “people-to-people exchange” is the
Moreover, Turkey and China also share similar most important basis for developing relations
views on their respective development strategies, between the two countries. As an old Chinese saying
exemplified in their mutual synergy for improving goes, “Friendship, which derives from close contact
the cooperation between the “Belt & Road” Initiative between the people, holds the key to sound state-
and the “Middle Corridor” Project. China attaches to-state relations”. If Chinese and Turkish people
great importance to Turkey’s increasing role in become closer emotionally and understand each
regional and global affairs, while Turkey is also very other more, then the two countries’ images of each
supportive of China’s rise (Colakoglu, 2014Colakoglu (2014). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). This other will significantly improve, and China-Turkish
completely contrasts the suspicion, criticism, and relations will inevitably strengthen.
even containment of the development of China and This article is structured as follows. The first part
Turkey by Western countries. analyses current developments in the Sino-Turkish
Since the strategic cooperative relationship strategic cooperative relationship since 2010 based
between China and Turkey was established in 2010, on a macro-level. The second part describes the
bilateral relations have entered a new era with more image of China in the eyes of the Turkish people
B R I q • Volu me 3 Issue 1 Winter 2021-2022
China-Turkey relations are normalizing thanks to the leadership of the two heads of state. (United World, 2019United World (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)
and the image of Turkey in the eyes of the Chinese relations, and the main driving force of the bilateral
people. The third part explores the possible reasons relations was the Chinese side.
behind these diverging perceptions. The article will The second stage is from the attempted military
conclude with a section that proposes suggestions coup in 2016 to February 2019. The main feature
on how to improve the image of each other. of this stage was that “misfortune tests the sincerity
of friends”. On August 3-6, 2016, the Chinese
The Status Quo Development of Vice Foreign Minister Zhang Ming visited Turkey
China-Turkey Relations (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic
of China, 2016). On April 18-20, 2017, the Chinese
Since 2010, the development of China-Turkey Vice Premier Liu Yandong visited Turkey (Yang
relations can be roughly divided into three stages. & Chun, 2017). Both visits were conducted when
The first stage is from establishing the strategic Turkey was under difficult circumstances and
partnership in 2010 to the attempted military coup were regarded by Turkey as supporting its national
in 2016. The main feature of China-Turkish relations sovereignty and unity. Subsequently, President
at this stage was “two steps forward and one step Erdogan attended the Hangzhou G20 Summit
backwards”. Although China and Turkey held the on September 3rd 2016. In May 2017, President
“Chinese Culture Year” (2012) and the “Turkish Erdogan participated in the First Belt and Road
Culture Year” (2013) in each other’s countries at Forum for International Cooperation hosted in
this stage, relations deteriorated in 2014 and 2015 Beijing and delivered a keynote speech. This series of
following violent terrorist incidents in Xinjiang. interactions reflects both the importance that China
During this period, the Turkish side was hesitant attaches to Turkey and Turkey’s trust in China.
towards further development of China-Turkey
The third stage is from February 2019 onwards. establish a strategic cooperative relationship. In July
The main feature of this stage is “go forward with 2015, however, an anti-China demonstration broke
caution”. On February 9th 2019, the Turkish out in Turkey. Following President Erdogan’s visit to
Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesperson stated China at the end of July, relations between the two
that the Chinese government had established a countries returned to normal.
“concentration camp” in Xinjiang to imprison After the unsuccessful military coup in Turkey
one million Uyghurs. They accused the Chinese broke out in 2016, China-Turkey relations have
government of seriously infringing on the human further developed, and a consensus has been reached
rights of the Uyghurs and other Muslims by trying on issues such as anti-terrorism. In February 2019,
to “eliminate” their race, religion, and culture the Turkish Foreign Ministry’s accusation of China’s
(Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic Xinjiang policy again led to a crisis in Sino-Turkish
of China, 2019). This makes Turkey the first country relations. However, with President Erdogan’s visit to
in the Islamic world to criticize China on Xinjiang- China in July, bilateral relations returned to normal
related issues, which has aroused great attention again.
from international media. Evidently, the lack of political mutual trust is
still the crux of developing Sino-Turkish relations, meaning that, whenever such issues break out, the
Evidently, the lack of political political relations between the two countries become
mutual trust is still the crux of turbulent. However, thanks to the leadership of
developing Sino-Turkish relations. the two heads of state, China-Turkey relations can
However, thanks to the leadership always calm and set sail again.
of the two heads of state, China-
Turkey relations can always calm The Chinese Perception of Turkey and the
Turkish Perception of China and set sail again. In the past ten years, with the continuous increase of personnel exchanges between China and Turkey, China and Turkey’s relations are like a seesaw Turkey’s image in China has continuously improved, when following this series of events. The outbreak of and some Turkish keywords have become frequthe July 5th Incident in 2009 caused the deterioration ently mentioned in China as well. One is “hüzün”
of Sino-Turkish relations. On that day, a serious (Pamuk, 2007Pamuk (2007). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). This word comes from Istanbul:
wave of violent crime of beating, smashing, looting, Memories and the City, the work of Orhan Pamuk,
and burning occurred in Urumqi, Xinjiang. Many winner of the Turkish Nobel Prize in Literature. As
innocent people and policy officers were killed or a well-known writer, almost all Pamuk’s novels have
injured, many vehicles were burnt down, and many been translated into Chinese, and the Turkish image
shops were smashed and burned. However, the constructed in his novels is well-known to Chine-
reaction from Turkey was not to blame the violent se readers. Of course, the current Turkish Republic
terrorists but criticize China’s Xinjiang policy. is not a gloomy existence, but very modern, bright,
Fortunately, in the next year, the two countries and beautiful, in sharp contrast with the gloomy
managed to reduce the influence of this event and existence of the late Ottoman Empire.
B R I q • Volume 3 Issue 1 Winter 2021-2022
Meeting with Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi within the framework of the 50th anniversary of our diplomatic relations. (Xinhua/Mustafa Kaya, 2021Xinhua/Mustafa Kaya (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)
The second is “romance”. In the Chinese imagina- have also deeply influenced the Turkish impression of
tion, Turkey is a romantic place with excellent geog- China. The first event is the Korean War. In China’s
raphy and scenery. Just mentioning names, like the historical narrative, the Korean War was for the real
Mediterranean Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Bospho- founding of New China. In 1949, the People’s Repub-
rus Strait, will arouse clear visions and longing in the lic of China had just been established, and the United
Chinese. That’s why the song “Take You to Romantic States isolated and blocked New China in all aspects.
Turkey” is so popular in China. Militarily, the US launched the Korean War, sent the
The third is “diversity”. Turkey is a country with Seventh Fleet to invade the Taiwan Strait and interve-
diverse cultures. The remains of many empires are ned in the Indochina War in Southeast Asia. Political-
constantly being excavated in Turkey. Mosques, chur- ly, the United States asked the North Atlantic Treaty
ches, synagogues, and more can be seen everywhere Organization and other countries not to recognize the
in Istanbul. Besides, Turkish cuisine incorporates the legitimacy of New China and manipulated the United
essence of diets from neighbouring countries and has Nations to prevent New China from sending legal rep-
won the reputation of the world’s third-largest nation resentatives to replace seats illegally occupied by the
of delicacies. Kuomintang. Economically, blockades and embargo-
In addition to these positive impressions, the image es were imposed on China and merchant ships of all
of Turkey in the minds of the Chinese people has also countries were prevented from entering New China’s
been affected by the following historical events, which ports. To break the siege and blockade of Western
countries headed by the United States, China sent a ter, a Macau businessperson bought it in 1998, hoping
“volunteer army” to participate in the Korean War. to transform it into a comprehensive maritime tou-
At this time, the Turkish Democratic Party gover- rism facility. However, in July 2000, when the Varyag
nment sent a “Turkish brigade” to join the “United left the Black Sea port and headed for the Bosphorus
Nations Army” led by the United States. China and Strait, Turkey was pressured by a third country and
Turkey became enemies at the time. refused to let the Varyag fly due to it being oversized.
It was only allowed to be released on October 31st 2001 (Xian, 2011Xian (2011). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). More than one year’s non-release Western agitation and propaganda and negotiations made the Chinese feel a great humi-
greatly contribute to amplifying liation, especially alongside continuous pressure from
problems, which inhibits the the West starting in the 1990s. Several years ago, when
steady development of bilateral Admiral Cem Gürdeniz, the naval colonel in charge of
relations. If the two populations this matter at the time, visited Shanghai, he explained
can share similar perceptions on that the Varyag was not allowed to pass through the
strait for several reasons, including that the aircraft this issue, the steady development carrier was too large to pass through the sea bridge
of relations between the two and that this created great risk for accidents. Howe-
countries will acquire a more solid ver, Chinese public opinion was not familiar with this
public foundation. reasoning. Chinese people have always mentioned the
Varyag aircraft carrier stories as bitter memories that
This incident also had a profound impact on Tur- continue to exert negative impressions of Turkey.
key’s understanding of modern China. Before the Ko- The third is the so-called “Xinjiang issue”. In fact,
rean War, Turks knew little and had no views about it is known that some Western countries are the main
China. In the Korean War, though, Turkey had war force providing shelter and assistance to the so-called
correspondents for the first time. They went to the “East Turkistan” separatists, but when the Chinese pe-
Korean battlefield to report on the fighting between ople mention this issue, they always think of Turkey.
China and Turkey at that time. Most reports on Chi- In Turkey, Xinjiang is frequently referred to as “East
na emphasized that China was a communist country Turkestan” in the media and public opinion. Even
and that Turkey, as a member of the anti-communist some politicians and political parties intensify this
camp, must resolutely oppose “Red China”. However, problem to seek their own narrow political interests
the difference in ideology alone cannot inflame the (Rui & Lei, 2016Rui & Lei (2016). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Furthermore, Western agitation
emotions of the domestic people. Therefore, many re- and propaganda greatly contribute to amplifying the-
ports trace the contradictions and conflicts between se problems, which inhibits the steady development
China and Turkey in history, arousing Turkish natio- of bilateral relations. From this point of view, if the
nal sentiment and deepening hostility towards China two populations can share similar perceptions on this
(Ungor, 2006Ungor (2006). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). issue, the steady development of relations between the
The second is the Varyag incident. The Varyag airc- two countries will acquire a more solid public founda-
raft carrier is the predecessor of China’s first aircraft tion (Ye, 2015Ye (2015). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).
carrier Liaoning. After the disintegration of the Soviet In addition to the above incidents, the outbreak of
Union, the Varyag aircraft carrier had not yet been the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 brought new chal-
completed and could only be left idle in Ukraine. La- lenges and opportunities to China-Turkey relations.
B R I q • Cilt 2 Sa yı 4 Sonbahar 2021
Traditional Chinese dragon dance is held in Istanbul in the Year of Chinese Culture. (China Daily, 2012China Daily (2012). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)
In the global fight against the pandemic, China has Turkey. This also applies to both countries’ scholars,
paid a huge price and is willing to help and coopera- which inevitably affects the mutual construction
te with all countries in need. For example, in Turkey, of positive images. If there is no public support
President Erdogan personally took a vaccine made in and mutual understanding, then the promotion of
China, which greatly boosted Turkey’s image in the bilateral relationships will face numerous obstacles.
minds of the Chinese (Wei, 2021Wei (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). China has also co- One could enumerate the reasons behind such
operated with Turkey to produce vaccines. However, misunderstandings as follows:
some Turkish scholars with Orientalist thinking argu- First, there is still a gap between China and
ed that this is China’s “vaccine diplomacy” in adheren- Turkey in their respective diplomatic priorities from
ce to Western hegemonic discourse instrumentalized a political perspective. In China’s strategic thinking,
by politicians. Such a recurring cycle of events brings strategic partnership with Turkey is extremely
severe challenges in promoting bilateral relations. important because Turkey is both a NATO member
country and a dialogue partner of the Shanghai
The Root Causes of Mutual Cooperation Organization. This makes Turkey
Misunderstanding between the Chinese an important cooperative partner in Eurasia. In
and Turkish People addition, Turkey has become a rising regional power,
China-Turkey relations suffer from persistent a land bridge connecting Europe and Asia, and an
misunderstandings between the people of China and indispensable part of China's implementation of the
“Belt and Road” initiative. For Turkey, developing
relations with China is of great significance, mainly China to expand investments in Turkey.
for two reasons. Strategically, Turkey hopes to send Over the 21st century, trade volume between
a message to traditional Western allies that China Turkey and China has gradually increased and
is a strategic alternative. This can be seen from continues to do so. In 1990, it was US$283 million,
the growing military relations between the two whereas in 2000 it rose to $1.441 billion. In 2012, it
countries, which is evident in Turkey’s application was $24.128 billion and rose to $27.3 billion in 2015.
to join the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. In 2020, it was estimated at $24.08 billion (Ministry
Economically, Turkey believes that the Chinese of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China,
market has invaluable economic opportunities, 2021). However, the real issue is that although
which is why it emphasizes its role as a bridge China is Turkey’s second-largest trading partner
between the East and the West, thereby reducing in the world and the largest in Asia, the total trade
its dependence on the Western economy (Chaziza, volume between the two countries has not yet made
2016). This shows that treating the West as a third a breakthrough since 2010, meaning there is still a
party has become an important factor in China- large gap in the mutually declared goal of US$50
Turkey relations. In addition, China and Turkey billion.
suffer from inconsistencies in their understandings Another problem is that Turkey does not hold
of important global issues such as UN reform, the an advantage in Sino-Turkish trade exchanges.
Syrian crisis, the Arab Spring, and more. The products exported to China are mainly raw
materials, and the imported products are mainly machinery. How to reduce the trade deficit, upgrade
In 1990, bilateral trade volume was the exchange of products between the two countries,
US$283 million, whereas in 2000 and expand mutual investment between the two
it rose to $1.441 billion. In 2012, countries are all issues that China and Turkey need
it was $24.128 billion and rose to to address and resolve together.
Third, from an academic perspective, China and $27.3 billion in 2015. In 2020, it was Turkey have held the “Turkish Cultural Year in China”,
estimated at $24.08 billion. “Chinese Cultural Year in Turkey”, and “2018 Turkey
Tourism Year in China”. The exchanges between the
Second, from a business perspective, Turkish cultural and intellectual circles of the two countries
businesspeople attach great importance to China’s have begun to increase, and an increasing number
market. Turkey hopes to cooperate with China of scholars and students work and study in each
on railways, bridges, and hydropower projects, other’s respective countries. However, the overall
but the growing trade deficit has become an understanding between the two cannot satisfy the
important concern for Turkey. China values its needs of both sides. In Turkey, Sinology or Chinese
economic exchanges with Turkey. For example, Studies has achieved remarkable results since its
Huawei Technologies Co. Ltd set up a research establishment at Ankara University in 1935, but it
and development centre in Turkey. Huawei’s 5G is currently facing difficulties such as insufficient
technology breakthrough relies greatly on Turkish faculty, difficulties in recruiting students, and
scientist Prof. Erdal Arikan’s scientific achievements. inadequate social and government support (Saritas
Moreover, these products can directly enter the EU & Yang, 2014). In China, although many universities
market thanks to the customs union between Turkey have established Turkish Studies Centres dedicated and Europe. This has laid favourable conditions for to Turkey Studies, their supply of accurate and
B R I q • Volume 3 Issue 1 Winter 2021-2022
authentic knowledge is still inadequate. This is the Similarly, China Studies seems to face a similar
fundamental reason China and Turkey still lack a situation in Turkey. The number of scholars studying
correct understanding of each other and mostly rely contemporary China is still relatively limited,
on third-party materials to realize this aim. This meaning the supply of knowledge about China
situation urgently needs to be resolved. is inadequate and cannot satisfy the needs of the
Turkish people. A significant development in this
Preliminary Measures to Reduce the area is the creation of a research centre called The
Misunderstanding of Each Other Istinye University Centre for Belt and Road Studies
As mentioned above, resolving the misunderstandings (or Kuşak ve Yol Çalışmaları Uygulama ve Araştırma
between the people of China and Turkey requires Merkezi, KUYÇAM) in 2020. This is Turkey’s first
the participation of multiple actors and the joint research centre that focuses on the “Belt and Road”,
effort of politicians, businesses, scholars, journalists, emphasizing China Studies. The new era of China-
and the great masses. The most significant factor Turkey relations calls for the emergence of a new
is to strengthen the exchanges between the two generation of researchers.
peoples, cultivate a group of experts and scholars Second, vigorously develop China-Turkey
familiar with each other’s national conditions, and tourism cooperation and increase direct exchanges
quickly improve their correct understanding of each between ordinary people. Tourism brings economic
other through the supply of more knowledge about benefits, is a cultural industry, and represents the
China and Turkey. This aim can be achieved by the most advantageous means for people to connect.
following: Turkey’s tourism industry is highly developed,
First, promote the development of Turkey Studies attracting 40 to 50 million tourists every year, but
in China and China Studies in Turkey and increase the number of tourists from China only increased
the supply of professional, unbiased, accurate from 100,000 to the current 500,000 before the
knowledge in each other’s countries. Although COVID-19 pandemic, thus only accounting for
Turkey Studies as a research area started relatively a small percentage of total travellers to Turkey.
late in China, it has achieved rapid development However, even this small number of tourists has
in the past ten years. For example, in China, already played a very important role in promoting the
several centres specializing in Turkey Studies have romantic image of Turkey in China. The same is true
been established across the country. An academic for China. Turkish students visiting China through
journal named “Turkish Studies” was issued, the summer camps or other exchange programs also
Turkish Studies Consortium was established, and help to challenge stereotypes. Tourism encourages a
the academic conference on Turkish Studies is held more accurate and authentic lens for ordinary people
multiple times each year. Of course, in general, to view the other country, first-hand experience that
these works still fail to meet the needs of Chinese is often more effective than news, media, and art.
academic circles and ordinary people. For example, Third, actively establish joint research centres and
book publications on Mustafa Kemal Atatürk have even joint universities to consolidate mutual trust
been abundant in Turkey and the rest of the world, between the two countries through cooperation
but there has not been a monograph published in scientific research. Turkey already has similar
in China, and there is still no Chinese version of scientific research cooperation projects with many
Ataturk’s Nutuk. Therefore, there is still a long way other countries that have achieved concrete results.
to go for Chinese Turkey scholars. In recent years, the number of Chinese students
studying in Turkey and the number of Turkish References
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