The Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between the Republic of Turkey and the People’s Republic of China (1960-1971)*

Introduction The reunion of the two former neighbors in

the westernmost and the easternmost parts of THIS STUDY EXAMINES THE PROCESS Asia on the political plane actually meant the end leadıng to the establishment of relations of the Cold War between the two countries. This between Turkey and China on the occasion was a time when China’s relations, not only with of the 50th anniversary of this development. Turkey but also with the rest of the world, began One could argue that the relationship between to normalize. Moreover, Turkey was witnessing the two ancient countries of Asia and their the beginning of a new era in its foreign policy people was established through a very difficult since the 1970s. The first fruits of this new era process shaped by the Cold War environment. were born with the normalization of relations Establishing a diplomatic relationship between with China and the Cyprus Peace Operation. the two countries, which were in different To understand this process of normalization in ideological camps, was an extremely challenging the 1970s, it is necessary to consider Turkey’s task in a Cold War climate. It is important changing stance in international politics since to point out that opposition to communism, the Menderes period. From 1950 to 1971, which used to dominate Turkish politics and Turkey faced military intervention twice. The society, constitutes the main obstacle to the first generated a military coup, whereas the establishment of connections between the two second resulted in a memorandum that led countries in this period. Therefore, this article to a new civilian government. However, these focuses on ideological and political dynamics. interventions did not cause an axis shift in

Menderes period - American aid agreement signed in 1947 (July 13, 1947, Cumhuriyet).

Turkey’s foreign policy. in the Korean War as a combatant among the

China and Turkey came to the stage of countries led by the USA, called the “Free

establishing diplomatic relations in 1971 by World”, and fought alongside the USA against

going through a very difficult ordeal. After North Korean troops and Chinese volunteers.

the Second World War, Turkey preferred the While the war was still going on, Turkey was

Western Bloc and established closer relations also accepted into NATO, the military pact of

with this camp in the 1950s. Similarly, the the Western Bloc.

People’s Republic of China was established in

1949 and became an important member of The Menderes Period

the Eastern Bloc. The first encounter between

Turkey and China in the Cold War climate was The experience of Turkey’s multi-party political

observed in the Korean War, the first and last system, which started in 1946, exerted a

hot conflict of this period. Turkey participated significant influence on Turkish foreign policy

characterized by the establishment of closer In 1955, Turkey was invited as the guest of

relations with the United States of America honor to the Bandung Conference. However,

(USA). The signing of 4 bilateral agreements in due to Turkey’s defense of the USA and the

the military field between Turkey and the USA Western Bloc, this caused a great disappointment

(Common Security Agreement-1951, NATO for other countries participating in the

Status of Forces Agreement-1952, Military congress, especially for India which had great

Facilities Agreement-1954, Tax Exemptions sympathy for Turkey. In addition, the Turkish

Agreement-1954) is a strong indication of this delegation made its first contact ever with the

development in the first half of the 1950s (Oran, Chinese communists led by Zhou Enlai at this

2001: 555-559). In this period, the Menderes conference (Bağcı, 1990: 61-63). However,

government followed the example of the USA despite these developments, the Menderes

government continued to evaluate China as and recognized the government of Chiang Kaipart of the so-called “red threat”, a concept that shek, namely the Republic of China, located in was prevalent in the Western Bloc. During this the island of Taiwan, instead of the communist period, Menderes supported Chinese Taiwan government established on the mainland. and South Korea, visited these countries and Between 1950 and 1960, the Menderes gave a speech in their parliaments. Although government adopted all the policies of the Mao and his friends had a deep respect for Western Bloc, especially its Middle Eastern Turkey and the Turkish people, they did not policy. In this context, Turkey took part in all hesitate to criticize the Menderes government. the Atlantic initiatives geared towards the US In many instances, especially in the Middle policy of encircling the Soviet Union, such as East, both countries took opposing positions. the Baghdad Pact (later named Central Treaty For example, in 1957, as tensions rose between Turkey and Syria, China took a position against

The negative experiences in Turkey, which was supported by the USA. Syria

relation to economic issues with was supported by the Soviet Union (Adıbelli,

the USA were actually the first 2016:194-197).

breaking point in Turkey-US Starting from the mid-1950s, however,

relations. This break led Menderes Turkey’s economic policies took a sharp turn.

The Menderes government no long received the to development its commercial loans expected from the USA, and this situation

relations with the Soviet Union. pushed the government to look for new sources

of funding. In this context, Japan, South Korea, Chinese Taiwan and even later the European

Organization, CENTO). In this period, the Economic Community were seen as new

USA was seen as an important security pillar sources of economic support for the Menderes

of Turkey against the Soviet Union, as well government. The negative experiences in

as the main financial pillar and source of the relation to economic issues with the USA were

Menderes government’s economic and social actually the first breaking point in Turkey-

policies aimed at transforming Turkey into a US relations. This break led Menderes to

“Little America”. development its commercial relations with the

Letter from US President Johnson to Prime Minister İnönü, warning Turkey about the intervention in Cyprus (Hürriyet, 13 January 1966).

Soviet Union. On April 11, 1960, the Turkish normalize Turkish-Soviet relations.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced that

Prime Minister Menderes would visit Moscow Turkish-Chinese Relations

upon Khrushchev’s invitation. According to after the May 27 Coup

the statement, Menderes’ visit should have

been held in July, and Khrushchev would visit As the May 27, 1960 coup started a new era

Turkey after this visit (Cumhuriyet, 12 April in Turkey, there were also important develop-

1960:1). While Prime Minister Menderes was ments in the Eastern Bloc. The 1960s were seen

preparing to visit the Soviet Union, he was as a period of détente between the Western

overthrown by a military coup on 27 May 1960. Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. In the meantime,

He was executed on 17 September 1961. One this period was also characterized by growing

of the general opinions regarding the causes disagreements and disintegration within the

of the May 27 military coup is that there was Eastern Bloc. The Sino-Soviet conflict, which

a US conspiracy against Menderes’ efforts to began in 1956 with Khrushchev’s criticism of

Stalin, became more pronounced in the 1960s. Turkey, and as a result of this negotiation, Jupi-

In the border conflict between China and India ter missiles were removed from Turkey in 1963

in 1962 (Hillam, 1966: 95-102), the Soviet Uni- (Hale, 2003: 135-139).

on openly supported India. The border disputes While all this was going on, there occurred

that broke out in 1969 between China and the an important development in Cyprus. Ankara

Soviet Union was the last straw between the two increasingly grew concerned about the frequent

countries (Robinson, 1972: 1175-1202). violation of the rights of the Turkish commu-

While this was happening in the Eastern nity in the island and increasing Greek inter-

Bloc, there were also important developments ventionism in the island since 1960. The Cyp-

in Turkey. Between 1950 and 1960, Turkey, whi- rus problem quickly became an international

ch acted together with the USA in the policy of problem. The international community stood

containing the Soviet Union, took active part with the Greek Cypriot theses, and while Tur-

in international and regional organizations and key devoted its efforts to bringing the rights of

attempted to pursue an effective foreign policy the Turkish Cypriots to the forefront on almost

in the Middle East region, giving greater impor- every platform, which eventually failed. Moreo-

tance to its own foreign policy priorities. In this ver, during this process, violent attacks against

context, Turkey adopted a more introverted but the Turkish community in Cyprus had already

non-aggressive, more defensive foreign policy begun. These developments brought along dis-

approach. cussions about intervening on the island within

the scope of Turkey’s rights arising from the guarantor agreement (Bölükbaşı, 2001: 57-142).

In Johnson's letter, the USA openly Finally, what happened in Cyprus started a

threatened Turkey, contrary to process in which a possible Turkish interven-

the spirit of alliance between tion in the island became a necessity in 1964.

the two countries, and stated that Prime Minister İnönü’s intention to intervene

the USA and NATO would not help found an echo in the White House shortly, and

then US President Johnson sent his famous let- Turkey against a possible Soviet ter, which went down in history as the Johnson attack. Letter warning Turkey against intervention, on 5 June 1964. In the letter, the USA openly thre-

Although the easing of hostility between atened Turkey, contrary to the spirit of alliance

the blocks started in this period, this tendency between the two countries, and stated that the

was not reflected in Turkey. In fact, this period USA and NATO would not help Turkey against

in Turkey was the most affected by the rivalry a possible Soviet attack. At the same time, the

between the blocks. It faced the indirect threat letter made it clear that Turkey could not use

of the Soviet leader Khrushchev due to the U-2 American weapons in a possible conflict (John-

spy plane incident which first took off at Incir- son & İnönü, 1966: 386-388).

lik base and then was shot down on Soviet soil. The letter caused a great reaction against the

It became the subject of bargaining outside of USA on the part of Turkey. In response to the

US attitude, Turkey considered to recognize the on of China due to its policies in line with the

People’s Republic of China and the develop- USA” (Cumhuriyet, August 6, 1971: 1).

ment of relations with the Soviet Union. In this

context, on October 30, 1964, after 23 years, Fo- Statements by Chinese Prime Minister

reign Minister Erkin became the highest-level Zhou Enlai about Turkey

Turkish official who visited the Soviet Union

(Cumhuriyet, October 31, 1964:1). In addition, While these changes were taking place in Turkey,

after a long hiatus in 1964, the cocktail party China was also closely followed the developments

held at the Turkish embassy in Moscow on in Turkey. Chinese Prime Minister Zhou Enlai

29 October Republic Day included the Soviet made a surprise statement to Turkish journalists

side. As a result, Johnson’s letter caused Turkey he received in Beijing on April 13, 1965, stating

to seriously reconsider its relations with the that China wants to establish relations with

United States for the first time and crossed an Turkey. Zhou Enlai told Turkish journalists the

important threshold in recognizing China. At following about the relations between Turkey

the same time, 1964 was the year when Turkey and China:

adopted a multi-faceted foreign policy. There is no problem for us in establishing relations between Turkey and China. First,

The main concern of Turkish we can establish scientific and economic

journalists was the Cyprus relations. Then we can start semi-official

problem, and China’s point of contacts. Both China and Turkey are Asian

view on this issue was a matter of countries. There is a very old and deep

connection between them in terms of history curiosity. Chinese Prime Minister and culture. We know that the Turkish and

Zhou said that the problem merged Chinese peoples have established a traditional

as a result of imperialist policies friendship. Relations between China and

followed by Western countries. Turkey should be established by considering

the principles of the Bandung Conference, such as territorial integrity, equality and living

In fact, one should also note that “attempts in peace. With this visit of yours, the first step

to recognize China were conceived by the State of the friendship to be established between the

Department bureaucracy in 1963–64. The coa- two countries has been taken (Statement by

lition government headed by İsmet İnönü was Zhou Enlai to Akşam, 1965: 82).

preparing for this issue. Suat Hayri Ürgüplü’s

government, which came after him, also made The main concern of Turkish journalists was

serious preparations on this path. However, the the Cyprus problem, and China’s point of view

Justice Party under the leadership of Süleyman on this issue was a matter of curiosity. Chinese

Demirel, which came to power alone in 1965 Prime Minister Zhou said that the problem

and was seeing itself as the continuation of the merged as a result of imperialist policies

Democratic Party, undermined the recogniti- followed by Western countries and said, “In

order to find a solution to this issue, the aims of

imperialism should be eliminated and peaceful Both China and Turkey are Asian countries.

negotiations should be held, taking into account There is a traditional friendship between

the interests of the nations involved (Turkish the Turkish and Chinese nations. Both of

our countries have suffered from imperialist and Greek communities)” (Statement by Zhou rape and oppression. We both now face the Enlai to Akşam, 1965:83). The Chinese Prime common task of reinforcing our national Minister also asserted that he would do his best independence and increasing Asian-African to improve the negotiations at the Conference cooperation. We believe that Turkey and

of Asian-African Countries, which was seen as China will be founded on the “Five Principles”

a continuation of the Bandung Conference, the (respect for each other’s sovereignty and

first step of which was planned to be held in territorial integrity, mutual acceptance of

Algeria as a solution to the problem: non-aggression, non-interference in each

other’s internal affairs, equality and mutual

I learned that Turkish State Representatives benefits, living together in peace) and the

will come to the Asia-African Countries Summit Ten Principles of the Bandung Conference. Conference to be held in Algeria this summer. Normal relations will be in accordance with I will meet with Turkish representatives at the interests of both the two nations and this Conference. Makarios is coming to this the Asian nations. We recently learned that: conference. I am sure that it will be beneficial

for me to see the Turkish representatives there “The Turkish government leaders and the

and learn their views on the Cyprus issue. As I public have expressed their desire to improve

said before, the Cyprus issue should be resolved relations with our country. In our view, this

peacefully, taking into account the interests of shows that they respect the facts and value

the communities. (Statement by Zhou Enlai to the cohesion between Asian countries. We

Akşam, 1965). welcome this indication. (Statement by Zhou

Enlai to Akşam, 1965: 84). In addition, Zhou Enlai saw the conference in Algeria as a platform where he could meet and

exchange views with the Turkish delegation. In the statements made so far, Zhou never

However, this meeting did not take place voiced inter-bloc politics, any stance or policy

because the Conference of Asian-African States against the Soviet Union or the USA, or even

was postponed indefinitely and later cancelled. Turkey’s position within the Western bloc. For

The Chinese Premier pointed out that the example, while talking about the development

relations between the two countries should be of economic and cultural ties between the two

normalized primarily through semi-official countries, emphasizing that this situation would

contacts between the peoples, journalists, be beneficial for the two countries, he stated,

scientists, and economists. The Chinese Prime “(…) mutual aid should be strengthened with

Minister, in his response to the question of other Asian-African countries and engaged in

what kind of results would be achieved in the the struggle for knowledge and experience.” He

establishment of diplomatic relations between referred to the Third World policy of China at

China and Turkey, said the following:

Former Prime Minister of the People’s Republic of China, Zhou Enlai. (CGTN, 2017CGTN (2017). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)

that time, and in a way tried to encourage Turkey in its conflict with Moscow, its struggle with

to support this Third World policy. Therefore, Washington, and its relations with the newly

he stressed China’s intention to establish and independent states of Asia and Africa (Armaoglu,

develop relations with Turkey on new grounds, 1964: 2).

not within the bipolar blocks and ideological In addition, Armaoğlu stated that as a result of

polarization of the Cold War. this recognition, Turkey would take part in Asian

In this period, Turkey’s establishment of politics, develop its relations with the newly-

relations with China also affected the academic independent African countries and also have

world. In this context, opinions began to emerge the opportunity to develop relations with some

about the need for Turkey to recognize China. countries within the Soviet Bloc, as well as some

One of them is Fahir Armaoğlu’s comment Latin American countries. However, Armaoğlu

published on 11 September 1964. Armaoğlu also voiced a caution: “An important factor that

stated that he believes Turkey’s recognition will Turkey should consider in recognizing Beijing

have significant results for both Ankara, and is the development of relations between Turkey

stated that such recognition would have some and Japan. For Turkey, this [relations with Japan]

important consequences for Beijing, especially is necessary both economically and politically.”

(Armaoğlu, 1964: 2). In fact, Armaoğlu advocated China is an ancient Asian nation, and therefore

for the further development of relations with they are waiting for the decision of Turkey with

Japan in order to counter-balance China. In other interest (Acar, 1965:1). In addition, Chen Yi

words, there still remained a feeling of distrust emphasized that Turkey has difficulties in its

towards China in the background. In terms of the relations with the great powers and China is

stereotyped threats of the Cold War era, this is also suffering from this situation; therefore, it

is necessary for the two countries to cooperate, not surprising. Still, in his assessment, Armaoğlu saying, “They should live in friendship. There sees Pakistan, Japan and China as the main is no disagreement, no conflict of interest pillars of Turkey’s foreign policy towards Asia between them. No harm has touched Turkey.

(Armaoğlu, 1964: 2). We have not seen any harm from Turkey. I hope

that a solution can be found to normalize our

Statements by Chinese Foreign Minister relations.” (Acar, 1965: 1).

Chen Yi on Turkey In the 1960s, it had become a custom for the

Chinese to refer to the Cyprus problem in almost

Exactly one year after Zhou Enlai’s statement, any statement about Turkey. However, it should

on March 21, 1965, Foreign Minister Hasan be noted that all Chinese officials have adopted

Işık’s statement that Turkey desires to achieve a routine, diplomatic and neutral stance on the

better relations with China gave a new impetus Cyprus issue in a specific pattern. In his speech

to rapprochement efforts between the two to Turkish journalists, Chen Yi expressed his

countries (Chronology March-May-1965, belief that the principle of the federal state

1965:199). After this statement by Foreign would not resolve the Cyprus conflict unless

Minister Işık, Deputy Prime Minister and the principles of equality of nations and mutual

Minister of Foreign Affairs of the People’s respect are respected in addressing the Cyprus

Republic of China, Marshal Chen Yi, who was issue (Acar, 1965:1). Meanwhile, the Beijing

visiting Pakistan, delivered a speech to Turkish administration responded positively to the

journalists. President Eyüp Khan of Pakistan World Red Cross Organization’s call for help to

and Foreign Minister Zülfikar Ali Bhutto stated the Turkish Cypriots and provided 70 thousand

that they wanted to act as a mediator for the liras in aid. Instead of sending the money to the

recognition of the People’s Republic of China by Red Cross account in Switzerland, China sent

Turkey, just like Pakistan, and that the response the money directly to Turkey. He made a gesture

of the Turkish Government was still expected against Turkey by sending it to the Turkish Red

(Acar, 1965: 1). Crescent via the Central Bank (Cumhuriyet,

In addition, Chen Yi stated that he first March 28, 1965:1).

told the Turkish Ambassador during his visit Despite the positive statements of the People’s

to Afghanistan in 1960 that China wanted to Republic of China and Turkey regarding the

normalize its relations with Turkey and that establishment of relations between the two

China had a positive opinion on this issue. He countries, some parliamentarians also visited

stated that it is the natural role of the Turkish Chinese Taiwan and made important statements

Government to determine what needs to be there. One of them was Lebit Yurdoğlu, the

done for this, and that Turkey is a country former Minister of Rural Affairs. In July 1965,

whose past is rooted in Asia. He went to say that

he made an 11-day visit to Chinese Taiwan, Leipzig Fair, Şadi Atagöksel, was invited to

where he was received by the country’s prime China by the Beijing Export Development

minister. In his statement at the airport in Center, and said on his return that “A new and

Chinese Taiwan’s capital Taipei, Yurdoğlu said large marketplace has been opened to Turkey”

that 90 percent of the Turkish people are hostile (Cumhuriyet, November 26, 1965: 5). On

to communism (Cumhuriyet, July 8, 1965:3). December 6, 1966, this time a trade delegation

Senator Sami Küçük gave a speech in the from China came to Izmir and met with

Parliamentary Senate of the Republic during Turkish businessmen at the Izmir Chamber

the 1965 Budget negotiations. During the visit of Commerce. Hsiao Fang Chou, head of the

of the President of the Senate of the Republic Chinese trade delegation and vice-chairman

of the International Trade Promotion Council,

As it is understood from the said in a statement; “This is the first time we are

statements in the 1960s, both going on such a trip. Today, China is on the way

to develop its foreign trade. We are facing many countries used careful language challenges in the development of our foreign in order not to alienate each other trade. The difficulties come from countries

and tried to approach each other that claim to be so-called socialists rather

through common issues rather than imperialist countries. In this context, we

than political and ideological want to do business under equal conditions.

differences. Developing relations will be very beneficial

for both countries” (Cumhuriyet, December 7,

Enver Aka to Pakistan in November 1964, the 1966: 7).

Minister of Foreign Affairs of Pakistan told him As it is understood from the statements in

that China supported Turkey’s Cyprus cause the 1960s, both countries used careful language

and that the Soviet Union also supported this in order not to alienate each other and tried to

case. He said that China also made an attempt approach each other through common issues

to support his position. Therefore, Sami Küçük rather than political and ideological differences.

pointed out that the People’s Republic of China, Within the scope of the Third World policy,

which wanted to stand by Turkey in this just China’s support for the Palestinians in the

cause, should be recognized as a balancing Arab-Israeli conflict and its refusal to recognize

factor in Turkey’s foreign policy, as Pakistan had imperialist Israeli Zionism attracted attention in

done (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi, Turkey. This was especially as China considers

February 1, 1965:1023). bilateral relations within the scope of the Five

Within the framework of all these Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, which is the

developments, efforts were undertaken to basis of its foreign policy. The fact that Chinese

prepare a trade agreement between Turkey Taiwan, which represents China in the UN

and China in November 1965. To establish Security Council, did not stand by Turkey’s side

commercial relationships between the two in some issues such as Cyprus at the UN, and

countries, the Turkish representative of the that the USA followed suit, was also effective in

Turkey bringing the China card to the table. In the People’s Republic of China, do we have to

addition, China’s successful participation in the walk behind it? (Nadi, 1970:1)

nuclear club in 1964 by carrying out the atomic

bomb test also increased China’s position vis-à- Haluk Bayülken, Turkey’s permanent

vis Turkey. representative at the UN, explained the reason

for Turkey’s game against China in the UN as follows: Sino-Turkish Relations in the 1970s Keeping the principles and objectives

By the 1970s, the issue of China’s representation of the UN law and the development of the

in the UN had long exceeded a dimension that United Nations in constant consideration, we

could no longer be ignored. Since 1950, the followed this meeting with full attention and

problem of China’s representation in the UN listened to various views with great interest

had always been the main agenda item for the and contemplation. On this occasion, I would

UN and international politics. China’s first like to express once again the commitment

serious attempt for UN membership was in 1960. of my government to the principle of

However, the USA started to stall the process by universality. This view has been expressed

arguing that the representation problem was an many times from this podium. Indeed, from

important one and should be negotiated. its inception we have recognized the United

Nations Organization as a world organization While the USA argued that Chinese Taiwan in which all nations, within the understanding should represent the Chinese society, many of the law, can achieve their rightful place countries also sided with the People’s Republic of in the community, regardless of their size or China. However, Turkey, following the path of the their political, social and economic beliefs.

USA, voted against China’s membership to the We have always been driven by the desire to

UN and caused criticism from various quarters. make this belief a viable reality. I would like

Cumhuriyet newspaper’s lead writer, Nadir Nadi, to add that we are still willing to act in this

criticized Turkey’s follow-up to the United States direction today. However, unfortunately,

on China in his column in the newspaper: since the draft resolution in document no. a

/ 1.605 does not fully meet these stipulated

In terms of international relations, it is issues, it is not considered possible to be

obvious that the situation is far from serious. approved. Therefore, we must cast our vote

As a matter of fact, some NATO member against this proposal. My government stands

states, especially England and France, have ready to carefully consider any proposal for

officially recognized the People’s Republic of the representation of the People’s Republic

China, and these states have re-established of China at the United Nations. (The draft

their relations. As for our stance, the fact that resolution in the aforementioned document

we are following a policy that has made it a recommends the expulsion of the Nationalist

principle not to stray from the yoke of the Chinese Government from the United Nations

USA for a moment has been conspicuous once with the acceptance of the representatives

again. As a result of the pressure of the events, of Mainland China) (Dışişleri Bakanlığı

America will eventually officially recognize Belleteni, 1970:72).

B R I q • Volume 3 Issue 1 Winter 2021-2022

why Turkey did not vote positively in China’s

Meanwhile, the United States had also membership process to the UN and secondly,

started to make attempts to improve relations China should be recognized as soon as possible.

with China since 1969, and a few attempts by Salih Tanyeri, speaking on behalf of the CHP

the Nixon administration failed. Despite this, group in the meetings pointed out that China’s

in 1970, Nixon instructed his then national entry into the United Nations was no longer

security adviser, Henry Kissinger, to prioritize a matter of time; he said that the need of the

relationships with China. Nixon had already United Nations for China outweighed China’s

begun to express at every opportunity that needs for the UN. After all, China had 800

they could no longer ignore the increasing million people and nuclear power. In addition,

importance of China. Salih Tanyeri states that “Turkey’s attitude and

The issue of the recognition of China had vote towards China, although they recognize

now become the number one topic of foreign Britain, Italy, France, Canada, the Netherlands,

policy agenda in the Grand National Assembly Denmark and Norway from the states included

of Turkey. While the budget of the Ministry of in NATO, is in line with the attitude and vote

Foreign Affairs was discussed in the 1971 Budget of the United States.” (Cumhuriyet Senatosu

negotiations, the discussions in the context Tutanak Dergisi,1971:347).

of China focused on two main topics: firstly,

US President Nixon shakes hands with Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai on his visit to China, February 21-28, 1972. (Shou, 2020Shou (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)

Speaking on behalf of the National Unity Mainland China said that “federation gives birth”

group, Ahmet Yıldız, on the other hand, said, to Cyprus. At that time, Mainland China was in

“We cannot find any rational aspect to our policy great need of these recognitions. We have missed

regarding China, with which we have had no bad the full point of this; it would be appropriate not

relations in the past,” and then Yıldız directed a to miss it even more.” (Cumhuriyet Senatosu

number of questions to the government: Tutanak Dergisi, 1971:374).

After all these speeches, Minister of Foreign

Why did we oppose the recognition of this Affairs İhsan Sabri Çağlayangil came to the

giant country at the United Nations, which podium and explained the foreign policy of his

NATO members Italy and Canada want to government, and in this context, he mentioned

recognize, England and France maintain the most important agenda of the day: the China

advanced relations with, and even the United issue. Çağlayangil, like other speakers, said that States has indirect talks and affirmed it with its 800 million population, China had will recognize conditionally? Even though now become a reality in international politics recognizing China is not considered contrary and a factor that should be taken into account to NATO membership, we find the hostility we stubbornly maintain to be very strange. without wasting any time, adding that the

Is there a reason we do not know about the People’s Republic of China was gaining weight

unrealistic policy pursued by the Government and making its presence felt day by day due to

against China, with which we can establish its population and potential. On the other hand,

beneficial political and economic relations? he emphasized that Turkey’s realistic attitude

Is there any intention to change this wrong towards Mainland China should be evaluated

policy? We would like to learn. (Cumhuriyet in the light of the international conjuncture

Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi, 1971:359) and the basic principles that every state, big

and small, justifies its representation at the

Kasım Gülek (Senator of CHP) also UN (Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi,

emphasized that China is a state that was about 1971:383).

to become a superpower, referring to the policy After these discussions took place in the

of China’s increasing influence in the Middle Turkish Grand National Assembly, Chinese

East and Africa, and continued: “We have Taiwan (Republic of China) hastily sent its

been saying for years, it is time for Turkey to deputy foreign minister to Ankara. On February

recognize Continental China. We believe that 25, 1971, the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs

with the Canadian formula, it is possible for held meetings with Orhan Eralp, the Secretary

Chinese Taiwan to remain in the United Nations General of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and

and for the Mainland China to be recognized.” focused on Turkey’s future relations with the

(Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi, Republic of China. He also delivered the message

1971:373). Kasım Gülek made the following sent by Taiwan President Chiang Kai-shek to

observations on China’s attitude towards the President Sunay and the Secretary General

Cyprus issue: “It would have been necessary Eralp, calling for the further development of

to make this recognition a few years ago, when Taiwan’s bilateral relations with Turkey in all

fields, especially in trade and culture. During announced to the public that direct contacts had

these meetings, Taiwan’s deputy foreign minister begun between Turkey and the People’s Republic

insisted Foreign Minister Çağlayangil to visit of China with the aim of establishing diplomatic

Chinese Taiwan (Cumhuriyet, 26 Şubat 1971: 1). relations (Cumhuriyet, April 26, 1971:1).

During this period, both China and Turkey maintained confidentiality on the subject

China and Turkey maintained of establishing relations, because there

confidentiality on the subject of was the danger of preventing or delaying

establishing relations, because there the establishment of new relations due to

was the danger of preventing or ongoing rivalries in the Cold War climate. The

delaying the establishment of new government of the People’s Republic announced

that they agreed to start negotiations for the relations due to ongoing rivalries in establishment of diplomatic relations with

the Cold War climate. Turkey and both countries appointed their

ambassadors in France to carry out these negotiations (Cumhuriyet, May 9, 1971:1). By March, important developments were

observed in Turkey’s domestic politics. Prime Turkey Establishes Contact with China

Minister Süleyman Demirel resigned from the

government as a result of the memorandum In the first days of August 1971, it was announced

given by the Turkish Armed Forces to the that Turkey would recognize China in a few

Demirel government on March 12, 1971. days. It was understood that the parties reached

Osman Olcay, one of the senior diplomats of an agreement on diplomatic recognition in July

the ministry, was brought to the Ministry of and working on a confirmation date. At that

Foreign Affairs. On March 26, 1971, Prime time, according to the leaked news from the

Minister Nihat Erim, under the foreign policy Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the announcement

title of his government’s program, made a was firstly set for the end of July, but this date

statement regarding China, “We are seriously was postponed for various reasons such as the

examining the problem of establishing political Taiwan’s ambassador departure from Turkey.

and economic relations with Mainland China, In addition, Turkey’s ambassador to Chinese

on which our public has recently focused, in Taiwan was instructed to start preparations

terms of whether it is in line with our national for his return to Turkey (Cumhuriyet, August

interests.” (Neziroğlu and Yılmaz, 2013: 3280). 3, 1971:7). Meanwhile, at a secret meeting of

For the first time, a statement about establishing the Foreign Affairs Committee of the National

relations with the People’s Republic of China Assembly on August 2, Foreign Minister Olcay

was included in a government program. shared information on the ongoing efforts

Exactly one month after the new government to establish diplomatic relations with China

mentioned the establishment of relations with (Cumhuriyet, August 3, 1971:7).

China in its program, Foreign Minister Olcay

Turkey’s Recognition of the People’s Following Turkey’s official recognition, the

Republic of China following congratulatory article was published

as an editorial in the People’s Daily (Renmin

Turkey and China came together in Paris Ribao) in China on 7 August:

to conclude the establishment of diplomatic

relations that they had been negotiating for a After the Government of the People’s

long time. On June 4, Turkey’s Ambassador to Republic of China and the Republic of Turkey

announced on August 5 that diplomatic Paris Hasan Esat Işık and China’s Ambassador relations were established at the embassy level to Paris Huang Chen announced the following on the basis of independence, sovereignty, statement to the public.

territorial integrity, non-interference in

internal affairs, reciprocity of interests, Declaration on the establishment of diplomatic and respect for the principles of rights and relations between the People’s Republic of equality, we offer our sincere congratulations China and the Republic of Turkey on this issue.

The Governments of the People’s Republic of There is a long tradition of friendship

China and the Republic of Turkey have decided between the Chinese and Turkish peoples.

to establish diplomatic relations on the basis of The friendly relations of our two peoples go

independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity, back to ancient times. The historically famous

non-interference in internal affairs, respect for the “silk road” stretches from China’s Gansu and

principles of equality of rights and reciprocity of Xinjiang via Afghanistan, Iran and Central

interests. Asia to Turkey. Friendly relations between

The Turkish Government recognizes that the China and Turkey were interrupted only by

Government of the People’s Republic of China is the obstacles of imperialism and colonialism.

the only legal Government of China. The Chinese The declaration that China and Turkey have

and Turkish Governments decided to exchange now established diplomatic relations is in

ambassadors as soon as the administrative full harmony with the common aspirations

formalities and practical arrangements were of the two peoples and the common interests

completed and agreed to provide each other with of the two sides. The Turkish people have a

all necessary assistance for the establishment of glorious tradition of revolutionary struggle.

diplomatic missions in their respective capitals The Chinese and Turkish peoples, who were

and to facilitate their fulfillment of their duties once subjected to imperialist attacks and

in accordance with international principles and oppression, have always sympathized and

practices. supported each other in the joint struggle

against imperialism. We strongly support the

Hasan Esat Işık Huang Chen Turkish people in their struggle to protect

national independence and defend state

(Joint Communique on the Establishment of sovereignty and territorial integrity.

diplomatic relations Between the People’s Republic The government of the People’s Republic

of China and the republic of Turkey, 1971:6) of China is the only legal government

representing the entire Chinese people, and

Taiwan Province is an integral part of China’s establishing relations with China, and announced

holy land. Whether “two Chinas”, “one China, to the Turkish public that the relationship would

one Taiwan” or “Taiwan independence” or be established at the press conference on 5 “Taiwan’s status to be determined”, any plan August. In addition, Sayınsoy stated at this press aimed at separating Taiwan from China will certainly fail. Chairman Mao, the great leader conference that there would be an exchange of

of the Chinese people, said, “We should strive ambassadors between the two countries in 1972

to establish normal diplomatic relations with (Cumhuriyet, August 6, 1972:7).

all countries that wish to live in peace with us, The first support from politicians came from

based on territorial integrity and sovereignty Kasım Gülek in the Senate of the Republic.

and equality and mutual respect for mutual Gülek said that it was a good move for Turkey benefit.” to recognize China, and that all Turkey’s friends The Chinese Government firmly advocates that all countries, regardless of their size and recognized China, so Turkey had to recognize it as

different social systems, should be equal and well, adding that “We have peaceful relations with

live in peace. We have constantly sought to many countries whose regimes we do not adopt,

establish and develop friendly relations with it is even late to recognize China.” (Cumhuriyet

all countries on the basis of equality and Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi, 1971:461). In addition,

mutual benefit, and mutual respect for their Gülek made a statement supporting China and sovereignty and territorial integrity. The Turkey in the most difficult period of the Cyprus current agreement on the establishment of diplomatic relations between the governments problem, declaring his stance. At that time, he

of China and Turkey is the result of the joint stated that maybe it would be more advantageous

efforts of the two sides. The establishment for us to know China, and the government’s

of diplomatic relations between China and direction was correct. (Cumhuriyet Senatosu

Turkey opened wide horizons for friendship Tutanak Dergisi, 1971:461).

and cooperation between the two countries. With Turkey’s recognition of China, one of the We firmly believe that the friendship between first reactions that appeared in the public was the the Chinese and Turkish peoples will definitely grow day by day. claim that this diplomatic step was made under

Renmin Ribao, 7 Ağustos 1971 the influence of the USA. aid Koçaş, Deputy

(Greeting the Establishment of Diplomatic Prime Minister, responded to these allegations

Relations Between China and Turkey, on 6 August at the Grand National Assembly

1971:6,11). of Turkey, saying, “This decision was taken

exclusively by considering the interests of Turkey.

Turkey’s initiation of a new era with China Our decision has not been influenced or even

aroused satisfaction in Turkey, although not as suggested by any foreign state.” (Cumhuriyet,

much as in China, and it was reported as news August 7, 1971:1). In his speech, Koçaş said the

on the front pages of the newspapers. Haluk following about the recognition of China:

Sayınsoy, General Director of Foreign Affairs

and Administrative Affairs, explained the task of We have not had diplomatic relations with

the People’s Republic of China, which is the unifying and constructive thought on all kinds

largest state in the world with a population of domestic policy problems, to be welcomed

of 750 million. Our government, which by all parties and esteemed members, as a new

mainly dealt with these investigations and manifestation of the unity and solidarity that

made a situation judgment, was decided and our nation has shown throughout history in

foreign policy, I wish that it will be beneficial the case was announced to the whole world’s for our nation, our country and world peace public opinion. This decision has been taken (Cumhuriyet, August 7, 1971:7.). exclusively by considering Turkey’s interstate interests. No foreign state influence in our decision; In fact, there was no suggestion, the Meanwhile, the Foreign Affairs Committee

events quickly showed that our country took of the Senate of the Republic held a special

this decision just in time, and some other meeting on the recognition of the People’s

countries took action after we started the Republic of China, upon the request of Fethi

negotiations (Cumhuriyet, August 7, 1971:7). Tevetoğlu, senator of the Adalet Party and

member of the Foreign Affairs Committee. In

In his speech at the National Assembly, Deputy this secret meeting, Sadi Koçaş, Deputy Prime

Prime Minister Koçaş also touched upon the Minister for Political Affairs, and the officials

situation and future of Taiwan, which was another of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs explained

issue that emerged with the recognition of China the purpose and reasons for the decision taken

and received much criticism. He said that Turkey by the government on the recognition of the

would not be a supporter of secession, but as a People’s Republic of China (Cumhuriyet, August

natural result of our relations, Turkey would support 7, 1971:7). As a continuation of this process

the membership of the People’s Republic of China to in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey,

the United Nations. the government also informed political party

Noting that the Taiwanese Embassy would leave leaders about the issue. Prime Minister Nihat

our country after the beginning of diplomatic Erim also met with the leaders of the parties

relations with the People’s Republic of China, and in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and

that China would establish an embassy of 15 people gave information about the relations established

in Turkey in accordance with the agreement, Koçaş with China. In this context, Prime Minister

later said: Erim met with Turhan Feyzioğlu, Chairman

All transactions will take place in mutually of the National Trust Party, and Ferruh

equal rights. While presenting this issue to Bozbeyli, Chairman of the Democrat Party, at

your supreme delegation and our noble nation, the Parliament on August 9, and evaluated his

I would like to specifically state that regardless meeting with the Prime Minister from Bozbey

of their regimes, both sides will never interfere as follows: in each other’s internal affairs, but that it will be natural for our economic relations to develop

rapidly along with diplomatic relations. While We had discussions about the recognition

I present this decision, which is the product of a of the People’s Republic of China, which is

Meeting where the People’s Republic of China was officially recognized at the United Nations. (United Press International, 1971United Press International (1971). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)

today’s issue. As you know, the work of the

old and new governments has finally come The recognition of Red China by Turkey

to a conclusion… The positive results of this takes place in our press and radios as the

decision for our country, especially in terms topic of the day. It is said that Red China is

of our economic relations and defense policy, a world-class power, recognized by many

should be clearly revealed. I am not convinced countries as the reason for the recognition.

that the efforts are sufficient to ensure the It is also claimed that establishing relations

continuation of our close relations with with Red China will bring many benefits to

nationalist China (Cumhuriyet, August 10, our country. In other words, it is stated that

1971:7). the interests of the country are taken into

consideration without this recognition. The

The main reaction against the recognition issue of which interests of Turkey are taken

of China came from the Adalet Party. Adalet into consideration by recognizing China

and what Turkey will gain by embarking Party Chairman Süleyman Demirel severely on such a path is not clearly expressed; it criticized the recognition of China and is even being avoided. If everyone knew

turning its back on Taiwan in his statement to Red China! … If those in charge claim that

the press on 8 August. In his speech, Demirel recognizing Red China is in the interests

stated: of the country, they also have to explain

to the public what these interests are. In Deputy Prime Minister Sadi Koçaş

my opinion, in today’s environment and responded to the harsh criticisms of the

at this time, recognizing Red China is not Adalet Party and its Chairman Demirel on beneficial for Turkey. You didn’t recognize Turkey’s recognition of China with an offthem for 23 years, but what damage have we received? While Turkey has so many the-topic speech in the National Assembly. In

issues, it is surprising that recognizing Red his talk, he criticized the statement of Adalet

China is presented to the Turkish public as Party leader Süleyman Demirel opposing

a very important achievement. Turkey does the recognition of the People’s Republic of

not currently have any crops to sell to Red China and explained with documents that

China, nor does it have anything to buy from attempts to establish relations with Mainland Red China. In this respect, it is not possible China started during the Adalet Party’s rule. to claim that there will be great benefits in terms of economic relations (Cumhuriyet, Deputy Prime Minister Koçaş said, “Mr.

August 9, 1971:7). Demirel, under his presidency, cannot have

forgotten the answers given by the relevant

Demirel made the following assessment and authorized authorities in the Senate and

regarding the status and future of Turkey’s the National Assembly, in the commissions

relations with Taiwan: of a government that has responsibility for

nearly six years, and also the answers he gave In recognition of Red China, it is to a written question. For reasons we cannot regrettable that the condition of severing understand, he has abandoned his old view.” relations with Nationalist China (Taiwan),

which had fought for nearly 25 years (Cumhuriyet, August 10, 1971:7). On the

against the communist spread in Southeast other hand, Koçaş stated that they accepted

Asia, was accepted. Those in charge, while Demirel’s statement as a personal statement

recognizing Red China, should explain of the government, and said, “We understand

to the Turkish public to what extent they the most obvious characteristic of being a

accept the conditions put forward by Red government as continuity in words and actions China, what conditions are put forward by unless there are major changes.” (Cumhuriyet, us and to what extent the other party accepts

them. Thus, the public will have an opinion August 10, 1971:7).

on whether Turkey’s interests are protected In the continuation of his speech, Koçaş

or not. In summary, hastily recognizing presented the views of the Adalet Party on China

Red China will not benefit Turkey. I also by giving examples from the recent past, and

declare that we regret the discontinuation cited the 1971 statements of Foreign Minister

of our relations with the nationalist China, Çağlayangil of the Adalet Party government which is an anti-communist country with regarding the recognition of China. Most friendly feelings (Cumhuriyet, August 9,

1971:7). importantly, on February 20, 1971, Deputy

Chairman of Foreign Affairs, Hasan Dinçer,

said in his speech at the National Assembly 448 people have the right to say such a word;

that the People’s Republic of China with its two people do not. One is Demirel and the

800 million population is an indisputable other is Çağlayangil. Does Demirel not know

fact, and that efforts would be made for both about Mainland China, the American-Russian

their recognition and their membership to relations, Strategic Arms Limitation Talks

the United Nations (Cumhuriyet, August 10, (SALT)? If he doesn’t know, it’s a shame for

1971:7). this country. How can Demirel, who served as

the Prime Minister for 5 years, not know this?” (Cumhuriyet, August 10, 1971:7).

Eventually, Liu Chun was Deputy Prime Minister Koçaş, who came

appointed as the Ankara back to the podium to respond to the criticisms

Ambassador of the People’s on behalf of the government, stated that

Republic of China on May 26, 1972. they were always ready to answer Demirel’s

questions in a secret session, and that the Adalet Party government had also initiatives

Süleyman Demirel, the leader of the Adalet for the recognition of the People’s Republic of

Party, who had not taken the rostrum since China (Cumhuriyet, August 10, 1971:7).

the day he left the Prime Ministry with the Eventually, Liu Chun, who was appointed as

12 March memorandum, responded from the the Ankara Ambassador of the People’s Republic

rostrum of the Parliament on the allegations of China on May 26, 1972, approximately 10

of Koçaş regarding the recognition of China. months after Turkey’s recognition of China,

Demirel pointed out that governments should started his duty by presenting his letter of

explain their policy decisions with their own credence to President Cevdet Sunay. Before

justifications. Concluding his speech, Demirel being appointed as ambassador to Turkey,

stated that for the same reason, Turkey may as Liu Chun had served as the Asian Affairs Desk

well request the recognition of North Korea Manager at the Chinese Ministry of Foreign

(Cumhuriyet, August 10, 1971:7). Affairs. In August, Nuri Eren, Turkey’s senior

Speaking on behalf of the CHP group, diplomat at the United Nations representation,

the group’s vice chairman, Necdet Uğur, was appointed as Turkey’s Ambassador to

criticized Demirel’s words and said, “Wouldn’t Beijing. Nuri Eren started his duty in Beijing

it be necessary for someone who has been on October 31, 1972.

responsible for the government of the

Republic of Turkey for 5 years to rise above Review and Discussion

such an important foreign policy issue? Turkey’s establishment of diplomatic relati-

Demirel says national interests are not an ons with China is a by-product of Turkey’s

enigma, and the government should explain it. changing foreign policy. Although the period

between 1950 and 1960 was a period in which inst the Cyprus issue in a harsh way and the

Turkish foreign policy was on the axis of the political figures of the period brought up the

West, and particularly that of the United Sta- recognition of China as a response to the th-

tes, the period of 1960-1980 is called a peri- reatening Johnson Letter, this could not go

od of relative autonomy, according to writers beyond being a weak bluff against the USA.

such as Mehmet Gonlübol (1996) and Baskın Despite this, the issue of recognizing China

Oran (2001). Indeed, when we look at foreign was on Turkey’s agenda. However, this issue

policy developments of this period, it is seen remained bound to the Turkish-American

that Turkey had started to follow its own nati- relations, and their position over the Cyprus

onal interests rather than following a bloc po- issue. Undoubtedly, this problem did not ari-

licy. The most important foreign policy prob- se as a one-sided request. In the 1960s, posi-

lem of this period was disagreements with the tive messages came from China as well. The

USA, especially due to the Cyprus problem. statements made by Chinese Premier Zhou

This difference of opinion led Turkey to re- Enlai and Chinese Deputy Foreign Minister

vise its policy of balance, a traditional fore- Chen Yi showed that the Beijing administ-

ign policy strategy. Therefore, relations with ration was also willing to establish relations

the People’s Republic of China and the Soviet with Turkey.

Union were reviewed. The issue of recognizing China had also

been a domestic policy issue and discussion in Turkey. In particular, one dimension of

Since the 1960s, the increasing the political fight between the Adalet Party,

influence of China in international which had to leave power as a result of the

politics, which attracted attention military memorandum in 1971, and the Erim

all over the world, had also shown government that replaced it, was the issue of

its effect in Turkey so that the recognizing China. Members of the Adalet

Party carried out their criticism against the

Since the 1960s, the increasing influence Erim government, both in the press and in

of China in international politics, which att- their speeches in Parliament, regarding the

racted attention all over the world, had also recognition of China. On the other hand,

shown its effect in Turkey so that the estab- the Erim government argued that the Adalet

lishment of relations with China had come to Party started the process of recognizing Chi-

the agenda. China had become a controver- na and would eventully complete it.

sial issue in the press, politics and academic The most important point of the discussi-

world in Turkey. Although in the 1960s, as a ons in the process of the recognition of China

reaction to the US attitude towards Cyprus, was the accusations that Turkey was following

especially in 1964, Turkey was warned aga- the path of the USA’s stance with China, espe-

cially in the UN. Both the Adalet Party and to Turkey’s theses and Turkey has interpre-

the Erim government faced such accusations. ted this as a supportive gesture. In addition,

Turkey’s stance with the USA in voting on the fact that China, unlike Chinese Taiwan,

China’s membership in the UN further incre- would have its own agenda at the UN, meant

ased the reactions against the USA in the Tur- that an alternative friend and supporter for

kish public opinion. Turkey would be in the UN Security Council

A number of technical issues also arose in the future.

throughout the process of Turkey’s recogni- In the shadow of all these discussions, Tur-

tion of China. In particular, the situation of key recognized the People’s Republic of China

Chinese Taiwan, which represented China at on August 4, 1971. In 1972, the embassies of

the UN, had been the subject of much debate. both countries were opened and ambassadors

Turkey’s thesis from the very beginning was were appointed. Since that day, the relations

that both Chinas should stay in the UN, whi- between the two ancient peoples of Asia have

ch in this respect was already the thesis of the continued to develop for 50 years. Although

USA. However, China opposed the inclusion 17 years of these relations occurred the inf-

of Chinese Taiwan in the UN, citing the “one luence of the Cold War climate, official presi-

China principle”. China stated that the count- dential visits were made to China for the first

ries that would establish diplomatic relations time in the 1980s, and more visits were made

with him should also comply with this one-C- from China to Turkey. In the 1970s, Süleyman

hina principle, otherwise, China would not Demirel, who was vehemently opposed to the

establish diplomatic relations. Another issue recognition of China, gave the Order of Merit

was the discussion about Turkey discontinu- to the Chinese President Jiang Zemin in An-

ing its good relations with Taiwan, which had kara in 2000, exactly 30 years later, guided by

lasted for years, which would be against the his own motto that “yesterday is yesterday, to-

principle of Pacta Sunt Servanda, that is, the day is today” once again.

principle of pact and fidelity, and that there should be an intermediate formula for this.

Particularly, the Adalet Party made great ef- References

forts in this regard. On the other hand, Chine- Acar, Ö. (1965, March 28). Pekin Çin’i Tanımamızı İstedi.

se Taiwan did not provide support in the UN Cumhuriyet.

Adıbelli, B. (2016). Osmanlı’dan günümüze Türk-Çin ilişkileri Security Council on important issues of Tur- (2. edition). İstanbul: IQ Yayıncılık. key. For example, Chinese Taiwan gave almost Armaoğlu, F. (1964, September 14). Türkiye ve Uzakdoğu. no support for Cyprus. Taiwan is a country Cumhuriyet. that has completely followed the helm of the Bağcı, H. (1990). Demokrat parti dönemi dış politikası. USA. However, China’s assessments of the Ankara: İmge.

Cyprus problem since the 1960s are closer Bölükbaşı, S. (2001). Barışçı çözümsüzlük. Ankara: İmge.

Chronology March-May 1965. (1965). Pakistan Horizon, açıklandı, s.1.

18(2), 195–210. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/ Cumhuriyet. (1972, August 6). Çin’i Tanıdık, s.7.

stable/41392850 Dışişleri Bakanlığı Belleteni. (1970, January). Belgeler.

Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi, (1965, February 1). Ankara: Dışişleri Bakanlığı Yayınları.

TBMM, Dönem,I, Cilt.24, Toplantı.4, 36.Birleşim, 927- Gönlübol, M. (1996). Olaylarla Türk Dış Politikası (9.

1071. edition). Ankara: Siyasal Kitabevi.

Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi, (1971, August 4). Greeting the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between

TBMM, Cilt.66, Toplantı.10, 97.Birleşim. 419-457. China and Turkey. (1971, August 13). Peking Review,

Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi, (1971, August 5). 33(13), 6-11.

TBMM, Cilt.66, Toplantı.10, 98.Birleşim. 459-499. Hale, W. (2003). Türk Dış Politikası 1774-2000 (trans.Petek

Cumhuriyet Senatosu Tutanak Dergisi, (1971, February 3). Denir). İstanbul: Mozaik.

TBMM, Dönem,I, Cilt.63-1, Toplantı.10, 36.Birleşim, Hillam, R. C. (1966, Winter). Key Issues in the Development

345-499. of the Sino-Soviet Dispute. Brigham Young University

Cumhuriyet. (1960, April 12). Menderes Moskova’ya Gidecek, Studies, 7(2), 95-102.

Hrutçef de Ankara’yı ziyaret edecek, s.1. Johnson, L.B. & İnönü, İ. (1966, Summer). President Johnson

Cumhuriyet. (1964, October 31). Erkin’i Moskova and Prime Minister Inonu: Correspondence between

Havaalanında Gromiko Karşıladı, s.1 . President Johnson and Prime Minister Inonu, June 1964.

Cumhuriyet. (1965, July 8). Yurdoğlu Çin Başbakanı ile Middle East Journal, 20(3), 386-393.

Görüştü, s.3. Joint Communique on the Establishment of Diplomatic

Cumhuriyet. (1965, March 28). 70.000 Lira Yardım, s.1. Relations Between the People’s Republic of China and the

Cumhuriyet. (1965, November 26). Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti ile Republic of Turkey. (13 August 1971). Peking Review,

bir Ticaret Anlaşması yapılacak, s.5. (33), 6-11.

Cumhuriyet. (1966, December 7). Kızıl Çin heyeti Sosyalist Nadi, N. (1970, November 22). Neden Hep Arkadan?

ülkelerle ticaretten yakındı, s.1. Cumhuriyet.

Cumhuriyet. (1971, April 26). Çin’le temasa geçildi, s.1. Neziroğlu, İ. & Yılmaz, T. (Ed.). (2013, October). Hükümetler,

Cumhuriyet. (1971, August 10). Erim, Feyzioğlu ve Bozbeyli Programları ve Genel Kurul Görüşmeleri. Ankara: TBMM

ile İç ve Dış Meseleleri Görüştü, s.7. Basımevi.

Cumhuriyet. (1971, August 10). Koçaş ile Demirel Çin Oran, B. (2001). Türk Dış Politikası (1. edition). İstanbul:

konusunda tartıştı, s.7 İletişim Yayınları.

Cumhuriyet. (1971, August 3). Türkiye Çin Halk Robinson, T. W. (1972). The Sino-Soviet Border Dispute:

Cumhuriyeti’ni Tanıdığını Bir İki Güne Açıklayacak, s.7. Background, Development, and the March 1969 Clashes.

Cumhuriyet. (1971, August 6). Çin’i tanırken, s.1. American Political Science Review, 66(4), 1175–1202.

Cumhuriyet. (1971, August 7). Çin ile ilgili kararımız, dış Statement by Zhou Enlai to Akşam. (1964). Dışişleri

tesir olmadan alındı, s.1. Bakanlığı Belleteni, Temmuz.

Cumhuriyet. (1971, August 9). Demirel Kıta Çini’nin Tellal, E. (2000). SSCB-Türkiye İlişkileri 1953-1964. Ankara:

Tanınmasını Kınadı, s.7. Mülkiyeliler Birliği Vakfı Yayınları.

Cumhuriyet. (1971, February 26). Çan Kay Şek, Sunay’a Mesaj Gönderdi, s.1. Cumhuriyet. (1971, May 9). Kıta Çin’iyle temasa geçildiği