The Energy of the Ecological Civilization: Hydrogen

Today, we see that the necessity of 250 years and has brought the entire global ecosystem

transitioning from Conventional Fossil Fuels (CFF: to the brink of the "Sixth Mass Extinction" (Robinson,

coal-oil-natural gas) to Renewable Energy Sources 2021).

(RES) is at the top of the global agenda. In this context, today's obvious and simple fact is

It has become clear that the transition is not a that even one more gram of coal and oil, and even one

choice and stems from a deep concern for collective more cubic meter of natural gas, should no longer be

ecological destruction caused by Climate Change. used for energy production. In this context, REC has

Today's civilization is essentially a coal-oil-natural become an absolute necessity.

gas civilization. Since the First Industrial Revolution, A question has always been at the center of the

which began about 250 years ago, the world has discussions on RES: can it completely replace CFF

constantly been warming, particularly due to energy today and in the future?

production and consumption. In other words, the I seek the answer to this question in this study. We

ongoing lifestyle associated with the prevailing can say with confidence that RES has the potential to

"system" across the globe has caused Global Warming replace CFF and Nuclear Energy combined with the

leading to Climate Change and the destruction of the prominence of Hydrogen Energy, which is among the

world’s ecosystem. RES varieties. RES is thought to have the capacity and

We consider that the phenomenon of Climate potential to protect life on our planet from the threat

Change caused by Global Warming has turned into of mass extinction.

an existential threat for human beings over the past RES types are divided into two groups in terms

B R I q • Volume 3 Issue 2 Spring 2022

of their key characteristics. While wind, solar (PV), Figure 1a. Atmospheric CO2

concentrated solar (CSP), and wave (including tides) are all classified as intermittent types, geothermal, biomass and hydrogen-based energy production methods are identified and differentiated as RES types with “base load” character. Among RES varieties, only biomass and hydrogen have the advantage of being transportable and storable. It is worthwhile to note that although hydrogen and biomass-based energy production systems can be in operation for 7,500 to 8,000 hours a year (hence their base load character), the time that wind and Source: NOAA Global Monitoring Laboratory, 2022. solar energy-based systems can be available during

the year is only 2,000 to 3,000 hours in sometimes observatory in the Hawaiian Islands (Figure 1a

unpredictable periods. On the other hand, it should and Figure 1b) are shown. Depicted in the grap-

be noted that unlike CFF and other RES types, which hs are changes over a wider time interval starting

are defined as "primary energy sources", hydrogen around 1750, marking the beginning of the first

must be primarily produced from other sources to be industrial revolution and extending until the pre-

used in energy production, and in this sense, it is not sent day. Along with the continuous increase in

a "primary" energy source. Hydrogen is defined as an the CO2 concentration, the amount of CO2 relea-

“energy carrier” in the literature (IEA, n.d.IEA (n.d.). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). sed into the atmosphere is also shown (Figure 2).

According to measurements and calculations, Climate Change and the Necessity of the current CO2 gas in the atmosphere is approxi- Transition to RES mately 3.2 trillion tons. Considering that the CO 2

Since the First Industrial Revolution, the earth’s concentration, which was 280 ppm in the pre-in-

ecosystem has been brought to the brink of a total dustrial period, has reached 420 ppm today, it

collapse due to our lifestyle and the uncontrol- can be concluded that approximately 1.1 trilli-

led consumption of natural resources. One factor

leading to this result is the use of CFF in energy Figure 1b. Atmospheric CO2

production. Energy production from CFF, as the major cause of Global Warming by human beings, has led to Climate Change, which has turned into an existential problem today. It would be beneficial in terms of the integrity of the subject to include the findings and indicators regarding the reasons behind said obligation. In the NOAA-sourced graphs below, the results obtained from the CO2 concentration mea- Source: NOAA Global Monitoring Laboratory, 2022. surements started in the 1950s at the Mauna Loa

on CO2 gas, which corresponds to one-third of Figure 2. Carbon Dioxide Emissions and

the said quantity, has been emitted in the last 250 Atmospheric Concentration (1750-2020)

years (Lindsey, 2020Lindsey (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). However, it should be emphasized that there is no common agreement in the calculations based on different assumptions. Figure 3 shows the change in concentrations of CO2 and other important greenhouse gases, like methane and nitrous oxide, over the 2000-year time series. It is clear that the increase due to human actions has skyrocketed since the 1700s. Figure 4 shows the average increase in the earth's temperature between 1880 and 2020. The y-axis on the left of the graph represents the tem-

perature change in Celsius units. Regular measu- Source: NOAA Climate.gov, 2022.

rements reveal that the earth’s temperature has kilometers) is rapidly thawing. With the acceleraincreased by an average of 1.18°C between 1880 ting thaw process, tens of billions of tons of metand 2020 (World of Change: Global Temperatuhane gas captive within the frozen soil layers will res, n.d.World of Change: Global Temperatuhane gas captive within the frozen soil layers will res (n.d.). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). be released into the atmosphere, along with viru- Meanwhile, only CO2 concentration measureses and bacteria that have been hibernating for ments are included in the Mauna Loa observathousands of years. Nor are we immune to these tory results. When other greenhouse gases such disease vectors, some of which are perhaps more as methane, nitrous oxide, and HFCs are taken dangerous than COVID-19. A scenario as such is into account, it is remarkable to see that the total exactly what “the Point of No Return” means. greenhouse gas concentration reached 457.0 ppm in 2018 (European Environment Agency, 2022European Environment Agency (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Figure 3. The Change in Concentrations of CO2 Promises and wishes listed under the headings of "Zero Carbon Emission" and “Transition to a Low Carbon Economy” were frequently repeated in the 26th UN Climate Change Conference (COP26) held in 2021. In addition, there are claims that a “Carbon Neutral” period will be started in 2050. However, the answer to the question is still open: suppose, for example, if the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm by 2040, how can we ever know that the "Point of No Return" has not been passed? The looming danger is that Permafrost (permanently frozen lands, mostly surrounding the

Arctic Ocean and exceeding 20.0 million square Source: Environment and Natural Resources, n.d.

B R I q • Volu me 3 Issue 2 Spring 2022

Figure 4. The Average İncrease in the Earth's However, it is useful to underline the following po-

Temperature Between 1880 and 2020 int: no type of RES is a “silver bullet” (final soluti-

on) on its own. In other words, we cannot claim that hydrogen alone or, for example, solar energy (PV or condensed solar) alone can be sufficient to solve the world's energy problem. However, it would be useful to point out the unique advantages of hydrogen energy compared to other RES types. The common feature of RES types, including hydrogen, and the major advantage in terms of environmental impact is that they have a "Clean and Inex-

Source: Earth Science Communications Team, 2021. haustible" character. Unlike others, hydrogen must

be produced indirectly from other sources. Therefo-

Such consequences of Climate Change, whi- re, as mentioned above, hydrogen is classified as an

ch are likely to emerge in the short term, show “energy carrier” (IEA, n.d.IEA (n.d.). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

that instead of ineffective strategies such as Zero Compared to hydrogen, which has the feature of

Emissions-based formulations that fall short aga- “Base Load” (7,000+ hours of operation/availability

inst the current existential threat and vague pro- per year), solar (PV) and wind energies (WES) are

mises that are of no use, the methods and app- intermittent because of the limited availability of

lications aiming at "Negative Carbon Emission/ wind and sunlight. In much the same way as hyd-

Carbon Negative" targets must be implemented rogen, it is worth noting that biomass and geother-

with no delay at the global scale. It is mandatory mal are of base-load character, too. It is obvious that

to capture and permanently store more greenhou- limited and indeterminate (in the case of wind) fea-

se gases from the atmosphere than those we emit. tures are a significant disadvantage.

So how can this goal be achieved? The answer is a Establishing an energy transmission network

subject of study in itself and should be dealt with comprising only PV and WES, albeit popular on a

separately. global scale, is not possible due to technical cons-

Why Hydrogen Energy? traints, although the established power capacity of

both PV and WES is steadily rising. Wind and so-

After giving place to the picture revealed by global lar sources are available for use for only about 3,000

warming and the related Climate Change threat in hours throughout the year. While the availability of

the above section, it should be underlined that the the resource can be predicted to some extent for the

transition to RES is an urgent and overwhelming PV, it is not possible to make such an estimate for

necessity. the WES. Local climatic anomalies make the WES

Among the RES types, hydrogen energy has pro- estimates uncertain.

minent importance and privilege. Backed up by hyd- Transforming WES and PV into relatively safe

rogen-based solutions, RES will be able to replace sources in terms of energy supply necessitates ener-

not only CFF but also nuclear energy completely. gy storage. If the energy (electricity) produced in

WES and PV facilities is not stored, it must be con- expectation of a shortage in supply and a jump in

sumed as soon as it is generated. prices accordingly in the near and medium-term.

With storage, for example, to double the total pe- It is believed that dependence on a limited number

riod of availability to about 6,000 hours of operation of suppliers may be a potential source of problems

in a year, one needs to increase the established ca- (National Minerals Information Center, n.d; Garsi-

pacity by two. A “battery farm” facility should also de, 2022).

be established where the electricity generated will be However, it should be noted that there are in-

stored. tensive studies on many solutions (Sodium-Sulfur,

Aluminum-Ion, etc.) as an alternative to the Li-Ion battery type. One of the disadvantages of wind and When it comes to considering biomass, sun is that the energy production based on them is

it stands out as a type of RES that is limited to certain areas with favorable conditions for

clean, inexhaustible, portable, storable, wind and sunlight. For example, establishing wind

and can be found in every area except and PV energy generation facilities in areas where

deserts. the wind blows 3,000+ hours per year or where the

exposure time to daylight is at this minimum will be

In this study, we do not mention the increase in appropriate for "process efficiency".

the establishment cost of WES and PV energy plants Brief Review of Geothermal and Biomass equipped with battery farms aiming to transform Compared to Hydrogen WES and PV plants into base load power generation

units. This is because we do not consider cost to be Although Geothermal-based power generation

the main determining parameter and its minimizati- facilities also have a base load function, it should

on in the background is another issue. We give some be noted that the areas where the required geot-

definitions of metrics regarding the cost factor in the hermal resources are available are limited to are-

following section. as with tectonic risks, where the earth's crust is

Another popular type that should be mentioned broken by faults and magma is close to the earth's

when energy storage is discussed is Li-Ion batteries. surface. Although the resource is practically unli-

At this point, the following determination should mited, the limited geothermal fields are their own

be underlined: energy storage tools and techno- disadvantage.

logies are still in their infancy. We are still far from In contrast, when it comes to considering bio-

the stage of developing these into mature and com- mass, it stands out as a type of RES that is clean,

petent solutions. inexhaustible, portable, storable, and can be found

Moreover, although wind and sun are plentiful in every area except deserts.

and free, the same is not true for Lithium. Here, spe- Biomass power plants (BES) can be established

cial emphasis is placed on Lithium, as it is the main to form a distributed system topology as a network

element on which the most frequently cited soluti- of facilities featuring different capacities with base

ons for energy storage are based. Although proven load function over a geographical area. An impor-

and probable lithium reserves are far above the cur- tant and distinctive advantage of BES is that it has

rent production level and global demand, there is no the potential to play an integrative role in the so-

lutions of energy and environmental problems as There is a "braking distance"; a sort of resistance

an effective tool in the disposal of organic wastes in the transition from CFF to RES. The transition

generated in urban areas. There is also the possi- will not be overnight, from evening to morning.

bility of producing biofuels from biomass to repla- There is inertia working against the changes

ce fossil fuels. In terms of the main theme of our that need to be realized in a short time frame.

study, it should be noted that biomass can also be Although the players and decision-makers in the

used as a hydrogen source. We discuss this functi- energy sector are not against RES, they intend

on of biomass below. to continue using fossil fuels as long as possible.

A common view is to give the use of natural gas The Importance and Privilege of (recognized as a lesser evil) a weightier place in Hydrogen Energy the current energy equation. At this point, we can

Hydrogen is a type of RES with all the advantages suggest two propositions:

and privileges of biomass mentioned above. Using 1. As emphasized in the Introduction, even 1.0

hydrogen as an energy and fuel source, RES will cubic meter of CO2 or any other greenhouse gas

be able to replace CFF completely. This possibility should not be released into the atmosphere from

can only be realized with the prominence of now on.

hydrogen and biomass. 2. It is essential and imperative to develop

methods and practices to have natural gas turned into a RES variety and add it to the spectrum of

It can be foreseen that the “ecological RES. As a concrete recommendation, we may well

civilization", which will replace the use natural gas as a source of hydrogen and pure

“Old World Order", will be a hydrogen- carbon.

carbon age. It can be foreseen that the “ecological

civilization", which will replace the “Old World

The target set for RES to replace CFF can also Order", will be a hydrogen-carbon age. Namely:

be expressed as “Carbon Zero”/“Net Zero Carbon Natural gas is mostly methane. Decomposition

Emission”. However, the "Carbon Zero" stage is far of methane through the pyrolysis process

from the final stage in the fight against Climate (introduced in a subsequent part of this study)

Change. The primary target is to rapidly implement yields carbon and hydrogen, basic components

“Negative Carbon Emission”/“Negative Carbon” of methane. As a carbon-zero fuel, Hydrogen can

practices so they become widespread globally. be used to generate electricity and heat, while

Unlike biomass, since hydrogen is not a direct pure carbon can be used to produce advanced

(primary) energy source, it must be produced materials. In this way, the carbon component of

from various sources. One of the sources of natural gas, which would otherwise be released

hydrogen production is biomass. When hydrogen into the atmosphere when natural gas is directly

is used for heat and electricity generation or as a combusted, will be permanently stored in carbon-

fuel in vehicles, only water vapor is released into made materials while still indirectly making use

the atmosphere with absolutely no adverse effect of natural gas as a source of energy (Meier et al.,

on the natural environment. 2013).

Thanks to the natural gas being "tamed" and While more hydrogen is produced in the

transitioned to RES, economic concerns that second stage, some CO2 is also released. The

existing natural gas and "Gas Hydrate" reserves output includes some heat released during the

will be wasted are also eliminated. reaction (exothermic reaction). The method can

also be applied to methanol and other short-

Hydrogen Production Methods chain hydrocarbons. The key point is that CO and

CO2 formation continue to be a problem in the Methane (hence natural gas, gas hydrates, shale context of global warming in connection with this gas), biomass, and water are the sources from method. which hydrogen can be produced. Although it is an old and proven method, Hydrogen and carbon can be obtained from methane reformation is still being developed natural gas through several methods. One of today, and research is continuing to find more the methods in widespread use is the “methane suitable catalysts to be used in reactions (Chen reformation". et al. 2020). With this method, CO2 is released

Steam-Methane Reformation as a by-product. In today's world, although it

is the conventional and widely used method,

As a proven method, which dates to 80 years steam reform is a method that can no longer be

ago, it is the most common hydrogen production considered favorable under the conditions of

technology today. For example, 95 % of the current Climate Change and "Carbon Negative" methods

hydrogen production in the USA is provided and applications.

through this method from natural gas (Hydrogen

and Fuel Cell Technologies Office, n.d.). The Partial Combustion-Gasification

method is as follows: Another method for hydrogen production The methane is processed with hot steam in from methane is Partial Combustion Gasification. the temperature range of 700-1000 °C. Carbon Besides methane, heavy oil, different petroleum monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) are released at derivatives, and biomass can also be used as raw the end of the process, during which some catalysts materials (Zhang & Ruan, 2019Zhang & Ruan (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Gasification are also used under a pressure of 3.0 to 25.0 bar. is the partial combustion of carbon-containing The process expressed with a simple chemical organic material (in this specific case, methane) equation is as follows: under conditions where controlled amounts of

CH4 + H2O + heat → CO + 3H2 (Since energy water vapor and oxygen are supplied to the reactor

is consumed to evaporate water, the reaction where the process occurs. The products released

absorbs heat - “endothermic reaction”) at the end of the process are H2, CO, and CO2.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in minor amounts can also The chemical reaction in the second stage of be an output product depending on the chemical the process is called “water - gas exchange”: composition of the input material. In the case of

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 + a small amount of heat methane, the chemical reactions involved are:

CH4 + O2 → CO + 2H2 urban solid wastes, sewage sludge, and scrap

vehicle tires to “energy crops” and agricultural CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O and forestry product wastes, are included in the

CH4 + H2O (in the form of hot vapor) → CO + 3H2 definition of biomass.

Gasification provides the decomposition of

The gasification process is endothermic biomass into its two components, CO and H2

(absorbing heat). In this process, the final products (SynGas), through a thermo-chemical process.

are CO, CO2 and H2. The volumetric ratio of H2 The process occurs in a gasifier/gasification

and CO products released in the steam-methane reactor in a high-pressure environment with an

reformation process is 3:1, while this ratio is 1:1 in ambient temperature of 800-1000°C. SynGas

gasification (Syed, 2021Syed (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). (mainly CO + H2) obtained here can also be used,

in the next step, via the Fischer-Tropsch process,

It is necessary to apply "Carbon to produce biofuels (biodiesel, bio-gasoline, etc.)

Negative/Negative Carbon Emission" and many other materials currently produced in

methods on a global scale to reduce a typical petrochemical plant. Meanwhile, it is

the CO2 and other greenhouse gases known that the plasma gasification method, which

already stored in the atmosphere to is an innovative and newly emerging technology,

protect the ecosystem and life on our can also be used in H2 production (Favas et al.,

planet. 2017).

There are also gasification methods in which The Relationship Between Hydrogen Pro-

catalysts reduce the process temperature between duction and Climate Change

1300 and 1500 °C. As a result, the release of CO Hydrogen is a basic ingredient used for various

and CO2 gases as by-products does not make these purposes in many industries. In this study, howe-

methods positive regarding Global Warming. ver, the feature of hydrogen as an energy source, as

However, when these methods were used to produce a type of RES that will eventually replace CFF, is

H2 in the distant past, the phenomenon of Climate taken as the basis (Kalamaras & Efstathiou, 2013Kalamaras & Efstathiou (2013). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

Change was not a decisive criterion, as it is today. In the days when the CFF-based energy

paradigm was not questioned and the Climate Hydrogen From Biomass Change phenomenon did not pose a vital threat at

Biomass and H2 have remarkably comparable today's level, it was seen that hydrogen production

properties in terms of their advantages and through the methods described in the previous

flexibility. Both types of RES have the advantage of section was not critical regarding the by-products

being portable and storable. Both are independent such as CO and CO2 released into the atmosphere

of the location constraint applicable to WES and at the end of the process.

PV plants. Biomass is a source of H2 and carbon However, today, Climate Change has become

and a primary energy source due to its organic the main criterion and the dominant parameter in

origin and its high content of H2 and carbon. all investment and business plans in all fields of

A wide range of products, from organic-based activity, especially in the energy sector.

Decarbonized/Clean Hydrogen Production PV panels, carbon-based semiconductors, and car-

bon-based building materials are a few of the many

What should be the means of achieving hydrogen uses. In this way, the carbon contained within the

production in such a way as to enable the transiti- chemical structure of natural gas will be perma-

on to a "hydrogen economy"? nently captured and stored.

The decomposition of natural gas into carbon Is that much just explained above enough to

and hydrogen components by subjecting it to py- avert the "Sixth Mass Extinction"? The short and

rolysis seems to be a valid method for clean hyd- definitive answer: no. It is also imperative to re-

rogen production. Pyrolysis decomposes organic duce CO2 and other greenhouse gases, which have

materials such as biomass into simpler components been accumulated in the atmosphere continuously

by heat treatment in an oxygen-free environment. and in increasing amounts over time since the First

Products of the pyrolysis process include volatile Industrial Revolution.

short-chain gases and pyrolysis oil and coke (Basu, It is necessary to apply "Carbon Negative/Nega-

2018). tive Carbon Emission" methods on a global scale to

Depending on the intended end product, the reduce the CO2 and other greenhouse gases already

raw material can be pyrolyzed at high temperatures stored in the atmosphere to protect the ecosystem

(800 °C and above) for a relatively short time (for and life on our planet.

pyrolysis oil production) or a relatively low tem- It is worthwhile putting a special emphasis on

perature (500 °C and for a long time for charcoal natural gas-related issues. A common view is that

production). When it comes to methane/natural natural gas may still be considered a part of future

gas, the final products are hydrogen and carbon. energy strategies, as its carbon footprint is smaller

In Figure 5, the “decarbonization” of natural gas Figure 5. Decarbonization is expressed visually. The stages of the pyrolysis process in Figure 6 are a simplified process flow chart in which biomass is generally taken as raw material. The conversion of natural gas into carbon and hydrogen through the pyrolysis process can also be described as rendering natural gas environmentally friendly through “decarbonization”. Thus, natural gas passes through the ranks of RES indirectly from the ranks of CFF, where it is currently present. While the hydrogen obtained from the “clean” natural gas through heat treatment (pyrolysis) will be used as raw material and fuel in electricity production, carbon will be used to produce hundreds of advanced materials. As the simplest and most common use, using "black carbon/coke" as a soil Source:Ozin, G., (2018). improver is possible. Graphene, new generation

Figure 6. Prolysis Process tom layers of the Black Sea. This option is fraught

with unforeseen risks. So, this is not an option at all, either. If the CO2 pipeline heads south towards the Mediterranean, the 4,700-meter-deep Rhodes Trench may also be a site for deployment. However, such a proposal would be a null and void idea. We can conclude that any region where tectonic risks exist cannot be considered a solution. We point out that the "pyrolysis" method (Schneider et al., 2020Schneider et al. (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). has special and primary importance in producing hydrogen from natural gas. In

Source: Meier vd., 2013. the transition period from CFF to RES, coal seems

to be the most easily dispensable type of CFF in the

(half or even less) than coal. Due to natural gas as relatively short term. On the other hand, the most

fuel in energy conversion power plants, capturing resilient CFF type seems to be natural gas. Russia

and storing the existing CO2 in the flue gas (Carbon will be the country that will suffer the most from

Capture and Storage - CCS) is a method frequently this transformation in the transition from natural

mentioned and advocated by many experts. Howe- gas to alternative fuels. However, it is remarkable

ver, it is possible to evaluate the two options toget- that Russia has plans to transition to hydrogen ener-

her when this is achieved. gy (Sharma, 2021Sharma (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

The storage of CO2 gas captured in a natural A striking example marking the tendency to tran-

gas-based power plant in the deep layers of the eart- sition to hydrogen is the policy recently adopted by

h's crust/lithosphere has been the most frequently the Russian Government and energy giants of Rus-

discussed solution. If the natural gas cycle power sia. Having made accurate determinations about

plant were located in the Scandinavian Peninsula, a the future role of hydrogen energy, Rosatom and

tectonically stable part of the lithosphere, it could be Gazprom decided to act jointly to build an energy

considered a storage solution. facility based on hydrogen on Sakhalin Island to the

However, this solution (CCS), for example, for a north of Japan (Communications Department of

power plant placed in the Aegean Region of Turkey, ROSATOM, 2021).

which is the western gate of the New Silk Road, such A significant development concerning Turkey

a CCS is definitely out of the question. The Anatoli- is that Rosatom, which is building a nuclear power

an Peninsula, especially Western Anatolia, is faulty plant in Mersin Akkuyu, and Gazprom, which supp-

and poses high tectonic risks. In a land fragmen- lies a large amount of natural gas to Turkey, have

ted with faults, it is impossible to store CO2 in the formed a solution based on hydrogen energy. This

stagnant ground layers. As a controversial and very occasion should be sufficient to give an adequate

questionable solution: a special pipeline between and convincing idea of the direction of current tren-

Aegean Region and the Black Sea Coast can be used ds in the global energy sector.

to transport the captured CO2 to deploy in the bot- Without a doubt, hydrogen is a candidate to be

the primary energy source of the future. The main Figure 7. A Simplified Scheme of the Electrolysis

argument in the focus of this study is that by imple- Process

menting energy policies based on RES, which emphasizes hydrogen (an endless energy source in practice), there will be no need for CFF or even nuclear energy. The importance of hydrogen stems from the fact that it can be used as a fuel and be a source of electricity and heat.

Hydrogen Production Through Electrolysis Method

Thanks to hydrogen production from pure water or seawater, hydrogen can become an inexhaustible resource. Many studies are underway to eliminate technical problems such as the cost barrier. It is predicted that using an electrolysis method for hydrogen production will become extremely com-

mon (FuelCellWorks, 2022FuelCellWorks (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Source: MDPI, n.d.

Electrolysis is the process of decomposing wa-

ter into its components comprising hydrogen and hydrogen, an energy source that can be stored,

oxygen by applying a certain direct current (DC) transported, and used as fuel, will be obtained.

voltage in an electrolysis cell containing water. The Hydrogen is an energy carrier that can easily repla-

oxygen (anion) is ionized under direct current vol- ce natural gas, which is almost described as “clean”,

tage and is collected in the positively charged ano- as many energy experts argue. For example, hyd-

de conductor. The positive hydrogen ions (cation) rogen can be transported over existing natural gas

pass into the gas phase around the negatively char- transmission lines.

ged cathode conductor. However, wouldn't Green Hydrogen production

A very simplified electrolysis scheme is shown add another link to the supply chain, possibly brin-

in Figure 7. ging additional technical problems and increasing

Using intermittent type RES such as wind (WES) costs? Although this question may seem appropri-

and solar (PV) energies as an energy source in the ate at first glance, it is useful to look at the issue of

electrolysis process stands before us as a frequently costs from a different perspective. However, before

mentioned and discussed issue. The hydrogen pro- this topic, it is worth mentioning two issues that

duced in this way is called “Green Hydrogen” in the are Turkey's only advantage.

literature. While electricity is already produced in A Source of Hydrogen: Hydrogen Sulfide WES and PV facilities, why should we use the ener- (H2S) in The Black Sea gy for hydrogen production by adding an extra step

to the supply chain? The Black Sea, which has the longest coastline and

Answers that immediately come to mind: using the largest Exclusive Economic Area in Turkey, is a

major source of H2S within seawater because of its the Black Sea (the upper layer at a depth of 90 to

formation's unique factors and processes. Due to 200 meters from the surface) decreased by 40%

this feature, the Black Sea has an unmatched ad- between 1955 and 2015 is alarming (University of

vantage and privilege as a hydrogen source com- Liège. 2016). Hydrogen production from a toxic

pared to other world seas (Demirbas, 2009; Yüksel pollutant, H2S, will provide a valuable energy

et al., 2021b). source and have a positive environmental impact.

In the production of H2 from H2S, "thermal decomposition/pyrolysis" is performed at a pro-

Turkey has more than 70% of the cessing temperature of 800-1000°C (Demirbas,

proven boron reserves globally. 2009).

In the Black Sea, an environmental disaster, which is inevitable in case of inaction, is preven-

In the deep-water layers of the Black Sea, whi- ted, while at the same time, hydrogen production,

ch has an isolated inland sea feature, the H2S for- which is the energy source of the future, creates

mation process has been continuing for approxi- an area of cooperation among the countries sur-

mately 7,500 years in the Black Sea, which was rounding the Black Sea.

formed 9,000 years ago due to the decomposition Novel Hydrogen—Sodium Boron Hydride of organic materials in an oxygen-free environ- (NaBH4) Based Technologies ment. We want to point out that the production of

H2 from H2S can be accomplished more easily and Like every country, Turkey has to use its unique

with a lower energy budget than water, which is advantages for a competitive advantage. Turkey has

an almost unlimited resource. Therefore, the Bla- more than 70% of the proven boron reserves glo-

ck Sea is a hydrogen source due to the formation bally. NaBH4 is a material that enables brand new

of H2S (Haklidir & Kapkin, 2005; Baykara et al. hydrogen fuel cell designs and can be a hydrogen

2007). carrier. Developing H2—NaBH4 based fuel cells is a

As a result of various field studies and mea- challenge for Turkey.

surements, it is calculated that there are 4.6 bil- The development of fuel cells based on NaBH4

lion tons of H2S at the bottom of the Black Sea is a candidate to play an important role, especial-

(Volkov & Neretin, 2007Volkov & Neretin (2007). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Demirbas, 2009Demirbas (2009). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). The ly in increasing the adoption rate of vehicles based

water mass in the Black Sea is 90% oxygen-free on H2 energy across the world (Wee et al., 2006Wee et al. (2006). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

and contains H2S. Scientists state that around ten So, there is an important area of cooperation in the

thousand tons of H2S are formed in the Black Sea Belt and Road Initiative context in this regard.

every day (Baykara et al. 2007). Transporting Hydrogen In the meantime, we would like to draw atten-

tion to the fact that H2S, which is highly toxic, Naturally, the first thing that comes to mind to

poses an increasing environmental threat in the transport hydrogen is the use of existing natural

Black Sea. H2S. The amount, which is increasing gas pipelines. It is focused on hydrogen and na-

day by day, is rapidly turning the Black Sea into a tural gas transportation, which will gradually be

dead sea area. The water body suitable for life in blended at a certain rate via natural gas transmis-

sion lines. Of course, this scenario can be valid, also be emphasized. It is known that the existing

assuming that the hydrogen will be converted national networks are not particularly suitable for

into energy at the point of use, far distant from the connection of WES and PV, which are inter-

the source from which it is produced. mittent-featured RES types.

As in the transportation of natural gas, hyd- As a solution, networks to accommodate

rogen transportation by liquefaction is also not WPPs and SPPs should comprise micro-grids

a suitable choice from a technical point of view locally with DC or HVDC (High Voltage Direct

due to unnecessarily high costs and the necessity Current) arteries connecting them on a wider ge-

of keeping it in very thick-walled tubes/pressure ographical scale. In the next stage, establishing a

vessels. This is because the hydrogen molecule transcontinental and even transoceanic network

can pass through almost any material used as the (a global-scale Super-Grid), where long-distan-

wall of the container. The most suitable method ce HVDC lines interconnect national networks,

would be to deliver the hydrogen compressed may be the subject of discussion. It is necessary

under high pressure and still in gaseous form via to mention a current trend closely related to the

existing transmission pipes. DC Grid issue, which is emerging today and will

Besides NaBH4, experts state in the literature form the upper floor of national interconnected

that ammonia (NH3) is a hydrogen carrier subs- systems: electrification.

tance. Saudi ARAMCO and ENEOS of Japan ag- At a conference in New Delhi in July 2019,

reed to establish a hydrogen and ammonia-based IEA executive committee director Dr. Fatih Birol

supply chain (Sampson, 2021Sampson (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Before this agre- stated that electrification will shape the future

ement, ARAMCO exported the first batch of 40 (CEEW, 2019CEEW (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

tons of ammonia to Japan (Saudi Arabian Oil Co., Instead of transferring the hydrogen to be ob-

2020). It is remarkable that Saudi Arabia, rich in tained from natural gas or water electrolysis by

oil and gas, aims to establish a facility to produce the pyrolysis method long distances via existing

and store hydrogen with an investment of 5.0 bil- or newly constructed pipelines, it seems to be a

lion dollars in the city of Neom, which it plans to reasonable solution to transform the energy in

establish on the Red Sea coast. They also aim to the form of electricity into electrical energy in

operate this facility with RES (The Japan Times, the cycle plants established at the location where

2020). they are produced and deliver the energy in the

In addition to using existing pipelines or che- form of electricity to the end consumer via DC/

micals for hydrogen transport, there is another HVDC lines.

valid option: transporting electricity to be pro- The electricity to be produced in hydrogen

duced from hydrogen instead of hydrogen itself. power plants, for example, can provide the ener-

gy required for heat pump systems to be installed Electrification of Hydrogen for district heating-cooling in urban areas. It is in

With the transition to RES, the current structu- this context that the electrification of hydrogen

re of the energy transmission and distribution finds its place. A DC/HVDC Grid compatible

network and how it should evolve into a topo- with RES types will create a suitable infrastruc-

logical structure (network) in the future should ture for transporting electrical energy produced

from hydrogen long distances. It would be useful this region is located at the same longitudes as

to mention the DESERTEC project, which was Europe when bordered by the Sahara Desert, it

designed as a regional Grid, to make the subject does indeed have a huge PV potential, but it does

under consideration here clear. not seem to gain a significant advantage in terms

DESERTEC, whose concept plan originated in of utilization time (availability).

the early 2000s, was formulated as a DC GRID However, when the Middle East countries,

project aiming to integrate Middle East and including Iran, are taken into account, it is no-

North Africa (MENA) and EU countries through teworthy that the solar energy utilization time

High Voltage DC (HVDC) lines. will increase significantly during the day (day

While Figure 8 shows the geographical area and night) utilizing the PV (and WES) facilities

that the project is envisaged to cover, Figure 9 sy- to be connected to DESERTEC DC GRID. In

mbolically depicts the electricity to be produced Iran's geographical area (60 east longitude in the

in MENA, mainly to be produced in the PV as east of Iran), it is possible to benefit from solar

well as in the WES power plants, transmitted to energy within a 6-hour period. An important

the European Union (EU) via Southern Europe- conclusion regarding this situation is that a DC

an countries over HVDC transmission network. GRID/SUPER GRID spanning in an East-West

DESERTEC is based on the idea that deserts direction will also function as a backup tool for

have a huge energy potential. Considering that RES types with intermittent and indeterministic

Figure 8. Power Flows in the Connected Scenario

Source: Zickfeld, F. & Wieland, A., 2012.

Figure 9. EU-MENA (Middle East & North Africa combined) HVDC Super Grid

Source: Zickfeld, F. & Wieland, A., 2012.

features such as sun and wind. Costs Related to RES and Hydrogen

In the first years of the DESERTEC project, Energy

the main emphasis was PV, with little attenti- A very common issue in discussions on RES is the on on RES. At that time, the issue of transmitestablishment and operating costs of RES types.

ting hydrogen or hydrogen energy to the EU by Keeping the cost criterion in the foreground stems

connecting to GRID was seldom on the agenda. from a 20th-century thinking habit. For a long time,

Implementing the original DESERTEC and sub- cost has ceased to be a determining parameter when

sequent renewed idea plans was not possible. Re- comparing RES - CFF. First, RES is getting cheaper

cently, a new version called DESERTEC 3.0 has day by day. Moreover, we are at a crossroads where

been introduced. DII (Desert Industrial Initia- the prevailing political and social system and the tra-

tive) consortium was established in 2009 by the ditional energy paradigm based on CFF have brou-

DESERTEC foundation, which was established ght our world to the edge of catastrophe.

in the early 2000s to gather companies active in We have to make a definitive and final decision

the energy sector and accelerate the transition to between death and life. If death is cheap and life is

RES with an effective and strong structure (DE- expensive, which one are we supposed to choose?

SERTEC Foundation, n.d.). If CFF is cheap and RES is expensive, which way

In the approach adopted by DII and the cur- should we choose? For one thing, CFF is not cheap.

rent definition, DESERTEC version 3.0 highli- On the brink of the "Sixth Mass Extinction", there

ghts the hydrogen energy. Accordingly, "Green are no more choices. Necessities impose themselves

Hydrogen", which will be produced mainly by for the sake of preserving life on our planet.

PV and WES, will be delivered to EU countries If there is an increased cost due to RES for in-

via natural gas pipelines laid on the Mediterra- dustrial and commercial organizations, public places

nean floor (for example, Algeria - France conne- and households, not reflecting this should be among

ction). the principal duties of the states. Moreover, isn't

the main task of governments to increase the inco- tential importance and urgency, the transformation

me and welfare of households while growing their towards Hydrogen, or as stated in more general ter-

country's economies? If the incomes remain at a le- ms, a hydrogen-carbon society, and a radical paradigm

vel to cover the increasing energy costs by regulating shift in this direction have emerged as a necessity. We

the distribution, this will not burden individuals and also observe that Hydrogen becomes increasingly pro-

organizations. minent in energy strategies based on RES. As a clean

It is also necessary to look at the othr side of the and inexhaustible energy source, Hydrogen combined

coin regarding the cost of fossil fuels (CFF). Accor- with other RES types is a candidate to replace both

ding to a report published by the IMF in September CFF and nuclear energy. Hydrogen, which is portable

2021 (Parry et al., 2021Parry et al. (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.), subsidies applied to fossil and storable for electricity generation, will also have

fuels amounted to $5.9 trillion, corresponding to widespread use in transportation thanks to Hydrogen

6.8% of global GNP, as of 2020, when external (indi- Fuel Cells, which are poised to revolutionize transport

rect) costs are also taken into account. It is estimated technology.

that this rate will increase to 7.4% in 2025 With a transformation of energy paradigm and

Apart from the indirect (external) costs such as policies in a radical way that will leave its mark on

diseases caused by environmental pollution, labor Ecological Civilization, we consider that a new era, "A

losses, and health expenses, we observe that between New World Order," is ahead of us. Ecological Civiliza-

2017 and 2019, fifty-two developed and developing tion, a synonym of the New World Order, will be cha-

countries supported fossil fuels directly with sub- racterized and identified with RES, featuring hydrogen

sidies of approximately 600 billion dollars annually as the main actor.

(Timperley, 2021Timperley (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Geddes et al., 2020Geddes et al. (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). This amount References

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