Re-Envisioning Non-Traditional Security in a Multi-Polarizing World: The Case of the SCO

From the last quarter of the 20th gence sharing, economic aid and diplomatic in-

century onwards, the world has witnessed un- itiatives (Caballero-Anthony, Emmers & Achar-

precedented transformations in political, social ya, 2016).

and economic areas. These transformations Following the end of the Cold War and

have been challenging us to rethink some of our the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the United

foundational assumptions about security, which States, now freed from its perception of com-

has gained a deeper international dimension munist threat, regarded itself as the sole master

under globalization beyond military concerns. of the international realm and developed a new

Contemporary understandings of security fa- security conception that favors a unipolar world

vor much more inclusive and international per- order and military interventionism (Gürcan,

spectives that prompt us to address the military 2019/2020). Within this framework, it focused

dimensions of security alongside its economic, its efforts on fighting terrorism (Islamic terror-

energy-related, cultural and environmental di- ism in particular) with the aim of expanding

mensions. These dimensions also entail the rise the reach of its military interventionism on a

of unconventional threats such as arms, drugs planetary scale. Yet, this design only lasted for

and human smuggling, religious fundamental- about ten years and faced strong opposition

ism, and terrorism as well as the intensification from Asian powers. A strong case in point is

of regional cooperation efforts such as intelli- the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO).

tial to advance the global struggle against terror- Despite being widely depicted ism, while enabling international development as a security-based organization, via economic cooperation. My analysis also sugthe SCO thus offers a much more gests that the SCO’s non-traditional approach to comprehensive perspective into

international cooperation by international security is strongly predicated on

addressing its economic, cultural the notion of multipolarity, which is portrayed as

and energy-related aspects the sine qua non of global peace and prosperity.

This article uses content analysis and process Revisiting the Literature on

tracing by focusing on the SCO’s treaties, decla- International Security

rations and other documents. The research aim The literature provides two competing under-

is to reveal how the SCO reframes international standings of security: traditional/conventional

security away from traditional understandings. versus non-traditional security (Swanström,

Content analysis is a popular technique often 2010). The traditional understanding, originally

used in textual analysis and relies on “coding adopted by realist theories, restricted national

based on research aims in order to enable a sys- security to military threats, which is why this

tematic categorization” (Gökçay, 2019/2020: 58). understanding primarily focuses on issues such

In turn, process analysis uses logical inferences as military power, defense, research and devel-

to reveal decisive historical developments that opment enterprises, national security and nucle-

shape social phenomena (Gürcan, 2017; Tutan ar policies (Walt, 1991Walt (1991). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). This traditional security

2019/2020). My analysis suggests that, despite understanding dominated by realist theories re-

being widely depicted as a security-based or- garded states as actors seeking to maximize their

ganization, the SCO thus offers a much more power within a zero-sum system (Viotti & Kau-

comprehensive perspective into international ppi, 2012). However, this framework seems to be

cooperation by addressing its economic, cultur- failing in fully explaining the 21st century’s key

al and energy-related aspects (Aris, 2009; Song, challenges.

2014, Gürcan 2019a, Gürcan 2019b, Gürcan Richard Ullman (1983) indicates that the

2019/2020). This perspective defies traditional classical approach to security should be ques-

understandings of security constrained to mil- tioned, because that national security cannot be

itary concerns. The SCO showcases non-tra- restricted to military elements. In this vein, he

ditional approaches to international security asserts the importance of providing securing for

predicated on the complementarity of security the environment, economy and trade in ensur-

and economy. This can be deduced from the fact ing national security. At the end of the Cold War,

that the insecurity of strategic trade routes ar- this idea marked an important step forward in

rests international development and renders the advancing nontraditional understandings of se-

regions situated near strategic routes vulnerable curity. Indeed, the end of the Cold War as well

to terrorist, separatist and extremist activities. as that of the arms race between the Eastern

Not surprisingly, these activities are part of the and Western Blocs may have reduced the weight

SCO’s main agenda of struggle. In this respect, of military elements in international security

one could argue that the SCO has strong poten- (Miller, 2001Miller (2001). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Swanström, 2010Swanström (2010). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Consequently,

the non-traditional security approach engages Non-traditional security predicated on the

in a multidimensional analysis of security and declining importance of nation states seems to

posits that security does not merely involve mil- provide intellectual support for hegemonic the-

itary threats but also incorporates different di- ses that legitimize foreign interventions. Particu-

mensions such as economic, environmental and larly, the US is known to have taken advantage

energy safety on a global scale. This being said, of similar “humanitarian” concepts in legitimiz-

some observers adopting the non-traditional ing its military interventionism after the 9/11

view abandoned the state-based understand- (Gürcan, 2019/b). In the literature, this finds its

ing of security based on an idea that changing counterpart in the idea of establishing “regime

dynamics in globalization has weakened states security” (Koblentz, 2013Koblentz (2013). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.), which paves the way

by rendering national boundaries less and less for an interventionist stance. Regime security

important (Buzan, Waever& De Wilde, 1998Buzan, Waever& De Wilde (1998). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). postulates that states designated as “authoritar-

However, the world is still too far from a truly ian” have a natural inclination to use biological

globalized system where national boundaries are and chemical weapons towards local separatist

insignificant, given that domestic and foreign elements. Therefore, regime security must be

policies are still being determined by states. In preserved by mobilizing interventions against

contemporary capitalist international relations, these “authoritarian” states (Koblentz, 2013Koblentz (2013). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

nation-states continue to play a decisive role in This theory seems to have two major problems:

formulating local policies as well as in regulat- The first problem involves its broad definition

ing international trade and competition (Desai, when conceptualizing the term “authoritarian”,

2013; Gürcan 2019b; Pratschke, 2015). Accord- which reflects a strong liberal-democratic bias.

ingly, the multidimensional character of inter- The second one is the portrayal of local sepanational security does not necessarily lessen the ratist elements as inherently “democratic”. This importance of nation-states. On the contrary, approach, also adopted by Buzan (2008), serves the newly emerging aspirations of contending to legitimize support for separatist activities and nation-states to build a multipolar world order interventions that violate the principle of soveris also part of non-traditional security. Here, the eign equality of states. concept of world order is understood as a global My analysis below suggests that the SCO governance system that institutes internationsituates itself in opposition to the hegemonic al cooperation led by a state or groups of states world order by reference to a nation-state-based (Gürcan 2019/2020). understanding of non-traditional security. As opposed to Western hegemony represented by global governance instruments such as the Inter- As a security-based organization national Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World adopting a nation-state-based Bank, the SCO mobilizes nation-states to opnon-traditional security approach,

the SCO’s attitude of anti- pose Western hegemony and lay the ground for

interventionism reveals its distinct a multipolar world order via alternative institu-

status from hegemonic security tional mechanisms (Gürcan 2019b). As a secu-

organizations serving to preserve rity-based organization adopting a nation-state-

the unipolar system. based non-traditional security approach, the

Shanghai Cooperation Organization Summit 2019.

SCO’s attitude of anti-interventionism reveals its SCO’s institutionalization was initiated with

distinct status from hegemonic security organi- the formation of the organization’s permanent

zations serving to preserve the unipolar system structures in the Moscow Declaration by Heads

(Gürcan, 2019a, 2019b). Moreover, as regards of States of SCO held in May 2003 (SCO, 2003bSCO (2003b). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

the SCO’s non-traditional security approach, Since 2004, new member statuses (i.e. observer

the present article reveals this organization’s member, dialogue partnership) have been incor-

multidimensional goals of economic, environ- porated, which served to expand the organiza-

mental and energy security along with military tion. The SCO’s enlargement process, starting

security constitute. The remainder of this arti- with Mongolia’s acceptance into observer mem-

cle will discuss the SCO’s historical formation, bership, was followed in 2005 by that of India,

goals and operations in order to fully grasp these Pakistan and Iran (Norling & Swanström, 2007:

above-mentioned features. 429). In 2017, India and Pakistan were accepted

“The Shanghai Five”, commonly accepted to full membership (SCO, 2017aSCO (2017a). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). In 2019, the

as the extension of mutual military and security number of the organization’s observer members

negotiations between Russia and China since the was extended to Mongolia, Iran, Belarus, Af-

end of 1989 (Yuan, 2010: 855; Bekcan, 2012: 74), ghanistan. Currently, the SCO involves dialogue

was initially formed on April 16, 1996 via a treaty partners such as Azerbaijan, Armenia, Cambo-

among Russia, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan dia, Nepal, Turkey and Sri Lanka.

and China signed in Shanghai (Koppel, 1996Koppel (1996). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

With the inclusion of Uzbekistan in 2001, this The SCO and

International Security initiative was renamed as the “Shanghai Coop-

eration Organization”. The founding treaty was The first article of the SCO’s foundational treaty

signed in 2002 at the meeting of the SCO’s Heads designates the organization’s founding members

of State in St. Petersburg. It was then brought while the second article states its goals. Stressing

into force in September 2003 (SCO, 2003aSCO (2003b). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). The mutuality, the organization puts its goal as follows:

improving cooperation in various areas such as tem globally imposed by hegemonic powers. As

politics, economics, science, technology and cul- clearly inferred from numerous meeting decla-

ture; providing security and stability; and striving rations underscoring the need for a multipolar

to build an equitable international political-eco- world order, the organization’s genuine attitude

nomic order (SCO, 2001aSCO (2001a). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). In addition, mem- reflects an opposition to foreign interventionism

ber states agree to closely cooperate to apply the and the continuity of nation-states rather than

Shanghai Treaty to their struggle with terrorism, an orthodox rejection of globalization by itself.

separatism and extremism. In this treaty, parties The following statement published after the 2002

agreed to cooperate in conformity with their na- meeting of the SCO’s Heads of States clearly in-

tional law as well as to prevent terrorist, separatist stantiates the above-mentioned perspective:

and extremist activities as defined in the first arti- “Globalization and national interests of

cle (SCO, 2001bSCO (2001a). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Within this treaty’s framework, states are not mutually exclusive, but rather mu-

the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) has tually complementary structural elements of an

been founded for combating terrorism, separa- emerging world order. The international com-

tism and extremism, portrayed as the “three evils”. munity needs to elaborate a new type of secu-

In this scope, common operation guidelines have rity concept based on the principles of mutual

been designated and a RATS headquarters has trust, mutual benefit, equality and cooperation,

been founded in Uzbekistan’s Taskent city. conducive to a radical weakening of the factors

undermining security and to the eradication of sources of new threats” (SCO, 2002: 3). As clearly inferred from numerous The SCO’s security dimension focuses on meeting declarations underscoring terrorist activities, as the region predominantthe need for a multipolar world

order, the organization’s genuine ly harbors elements that are part of non-state

attitude reflects an opposition to actors threatening regional security. Member

foreign interventionism and the states are indeed surrounded by terrorist, sepa-

continuity of nation-states rather ratist and extremist activities. Afghanistan, the

than an orthodox rejection of region Andican in Kyrgyzstan, the Kashmir re-

globalization by itself. gion between India and Pakistan, Xinjiang-Uy-

gur Autonomous Region in China are regions that both harbor intense fundamentalist and At the SCO’s Heads of States meeting in

2002, the SCO’s foundational treaty was signed separatist activities and constitute the routes for

with the aspiration that the 21st century would trade, petrol and natural gas lines. Thus, security

be based on collective solution mechanisms efforts for reflecting the traditional understand-

and the organization would foster cooperation ing of mere military elements do not offer any

among member states in an emerging multipo- long term solution for the region.

lar system of international relations. It was em- The 2002 Declaration also emphasizes the

phasized that the organization is not a structure need for tackling security based on a nin-tradi-

founded against any state, group or bloc (SCO, tional approach. It refers to the various dimen-

2002). The SCO is not part of any polarization; sions of security that have to do with economy,

rather it is merely a reaction to the unipolar sys- energy, the environment, culture and health, be-

sides military challenges. In this perspective, it is effects of global crises in the future (Gürcan,

possible to argue the SCO attempts to preserve 2019a, 2019b). In line with this need, economic

the principle of sovereign equality of states and development has been emphasized for the pro-

lay a concrete ground for a nation-state-based vision of regional security (SCO, 2009: 1, SCO,

understanding of non-traditional security. An 2011:1). Accordingly, the SCO Business Council

important point to emphasize in this under- and Interbank Consortium have been formed and

standing is that in case of a regional conflict, the charged with the execution of the organization’s

SCO is to adopt an anti-interventionist method development and infrastructure projects. That is,

based on the principle of non-interference in while the SCO Business Council attempts to co-

domestic affairs instead of the Western “respon- ordinate development projects via investments,

sibility to protect” (R2P) doctrine (Aris, 2012Aris (2012). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). the Interbank Consortium executes coordination

Adopting this former doctrine, Russia and Chi- among member states’ banks to finance infra-

na refused many UN solutions pioneered by the structural investments (Gürcan, 2019a, 2019b).

US as part of the UN Security Council. For ex- The 2013 Heads of State meeting pointed

ample, they blocked or abstained from the 2006 to the need for building transportation roads

Sudan and 2011 Libya peacekeeping operations. among member states, which will serve for fast-

In the case of the SCO, SCO member states pro- er development and is geared towards enhancing

vide an alternative method by upholding the the competitiveness and attractiveness of inter-

principle of non-interference in domestic affairs. national and regional transportation corridors.

As such, instead of peacekeeping operations, Relatedly, greater cooperation was planned to

the organization focuses on intelligence sharing build international transportation roads and to

within RATS and a strong diplomatic and polit- establish new generation logistic centers (SCO,

ical cooperation (Aris, 2012: 452-453Aris (2012). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Gürcan, 2013Gürcan (2013). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). In 2014, member states signed a treaty

2019a, 2019b). for creating favorable conditions for interna-

tional highway transportation and agreed on inaugurating six different roads (SCO, 2014SCO (2014). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

Accordingly, the SCO Business The operation of these roads is not only expect-

Council and Interbank Consortium ed to increase the trade volume among member

have been formed and charged states but would also serve the development of with the execution of the cities located near the highways. These six roads organization’s development and

infrastructure projects. outlined in the treaty are expected to be opened

after 2020:

Although, the SCO’s economic dimension 1- Barnaul - Veseloyarsk (Russia)/ Auyl

has been present since it was founded with the (Kazakhstan) - Semey - Bakhty (Ka-

intention of improving cooperation among zakhstan)/ Bakhtu (China) - Tacheng

member states, more concrete steps in this area Airport - Kuitun - Urumqi.

have been taken since 2009 via treaties among 2- St. Petersburg - Orenburg - Sagarchin

member states. In this respect, the 2008 eco- (Russia)/ Zhaisan (Kazakhstan) - Akto-

nomic crisis also revealed the necessity for mul- be - Kyzylorda -Shymkent - Taraz - Al-

tilateral cooperation to overcome the negative maty - Khorgos (Kazakhstan)/ Horgos

(China) - Urumqi – Lianyungang. of economic development for ensuring a stable

3- Urumqi - Kashgar - Karasu (China)/ regional security towards a new world order was

Kulma (Tajikistan) - Murghab - Khorog underlined (SCO, 2015SCO (2015). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

- Dushanbe (Vahdat). At the 13th SCO Heads of States meeting,

4- Urumqi - Khorgos (China)/ Korgas Xi Jinping indicated the Belt and Road Initiative

(Kazakhstan) - Almaty - Taraz - Shyim- shares the same goals as the SCO. He suggested

kent - Konysbaeva synchronizing the SCO’s treaties towards creat-

(Kazakhstan)/ Yallama (Uzbekistan) - ing transportation and logistics roads and facil-

Chinaz. itating trade and investment with the Road and

5- Kant - APT “Ak-Tilek” (Kyrgyzstan)/ Belt Initiative in the name of enhanced regional

Aktobe - Zhaisan (Kyrgyzstan)/ Sagar- 2019/2020; Yi, 2019/2020). The significance

chin (Russia) - Orenburg - Saint Peters- of this suggestion stems from the fact that the

burg. current members of the Belt and Road Initiative

6- At-Bashy - Torugart (Kyrgyzstan)/ make up 65% of world population and 40% of

Turugart (China) - Kashgar - Urumqi - global gross domestic product (Kaptan, 2019:

Lianyungang. 31; Şahin, 2019: 102). Positively responding to

China’s demand, Rashid Alimov, then General Secretary of the SCO, stated in an interview to CCTV2 that the relationship between the SCO and the Belt and Road Initiative would significantly serve the organization’s future and accelerate member states’ development via enhanced regional cooperation (SCO, 2017bSCO (2017a). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Şahin, 2019Şahin (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). This synchronization process is expected to improve economies of regional states and thus weaken elements disrupting the region’s stability. In line with the SCO’s Development Strategy emphasizing the relationship between economic well-being and security, the Belt and Road Initi- SCO map: Green: members; Light blue: observers;

Dark blue: dialogue partners. ative is to be seriously considered for the SCO’s

future prosperity (Sadovnikova et al., 2019Sadovnikova et al. (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

The SCO’s 2025 development strategy was In 2017, with full membership of Pakistan

designated based on the prediction that the and India, the third largest economy following

coming era will witness important changes to the US and China, the SCO has become Eurasia’s

the international relations system, including the most important organization. Its cooperation

constitution of a new multipolar world system. aims encompass a broad region ranging from

Considering the interdependent relationship be- Arctic area in the north to the Indian Ocean in

tween security and well-being, the importance the south, from Kaliningrad in the west to Li-

anyungang in the east (Alimov, 2018: 116). In 2015). In this respect, with the aim of proposing

2016, the gross domestic product in the organ- projects in terms of energy and exchanging ide-

ization grew by 4.84% reaching two times the as, the SCO Energy Club was formed as an advi-

global average. In 2018, with eight members, the sory mechanism. It does not serve any function

SCO reached one fourth of the global gross do- in terms of project implementation yet, but it

mestic product. Member states are regularly in- provides the ground for bilateral or multilateral

creasing their foreign currency and gold reserves cooperation (Mastepanov, 2017Mastepanov (2017). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Although the

amounting approximately to 4 billion US dollars Energy Club remains at the level of consensus,

(Alimov, 2018: 117). Additionally, considering it is a useful enterprise to ideologically and cul-

that member states’ population constitutes one turally foster Eurasianism (Gürcan, 2019a: 74).

half of the world’s total, the organization’s re- The SCO also installs cooperation mech-

gional and international importance becomes anisms among member states in the area of

more apparent. health. This reveals that the organization does

With India’s membership, the International not only regard member states’ development

North-South Transport Corridor Project (ISTC) in terms of economy, but also forefronts a so-

aiming to connect India and Russia via highways, cio-economic framework advancing social de-

sea and railroads was also incorporated into the velopment. In accordance with this, member

SCO’s scope. This project can be advanced via states declared their willingness to firmlu coop-

regional states’ coordination in upholding the erate in the area of health, particularly in com-

SCO’s treaties for “Facilitating Access to Trade bating epidemics (SCO, 2018SCO (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). As from January

Routes” (Alimov, 2018: 120; Hillman, 2017Hillman (2017). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). The 2020 onwards China has been facing such an ep-

project is indicated to dovetail nicely with the idemic, and also benefiting from member states’

Belt and Road Initiative. Both the Belt and Road support in terms of material and technical aid

Initiative and the International North-South Trans- to combat the new Corona virus (SCO, 2020SCO (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

port Corridor interconnect the SCO geo raphy and Although the epidemic is still not yet fully pre-

therefore will importantly contribute to socio-eco- vented, emergency interventions are being effi-

nomic development via diversifying member states’ ciently implemented. Upholding the “Shanghai

economic tools and transportation routes. Spirit”, regional states do not leave each other in

The SCO geography also possesses consid- isolation regarding threats in military, econom-

erable importance for member states in terms of ic, health and energy areas and continue to co-

energy security. This geography includes a prox- operate for enhanced development and mutual

imately 25% of world’s petroleum reserves, more benefit.

than 50% of natural gas reserves, 35% of coal re- Finally, another dimension underlying the

serves, and half of the known uranium reserves. SCO’s security provision encompasses cultural

In other words, the SCO geography is located at matters. In this respect, the SCO Youth Coun-

a highly significant spot for the world’s energy cil founded in 2009 may be regarded as an im-

supply. Both energy demanding countries (Chi- portant step for the future of regional coopera-

na, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, India, Pakistan, and tion. Additionally, this step may also contribute

Mongolia) and the providing countries (Rus- to goals for realizing a new multipolar inter-

sia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Iran) are SCO national system. While SCO’s member states

members which, in turn, will deepen the or- struggle against “three evils” in the region, the

ganization’s cooperation in this area (InfoSCO, Youth Council encourages the creation of a bet-

ter future, promoting the physical, mental and of these areas, the SCO particularly emphasizes

spiritual development of younger generations two points regarding mutuality and non-inter-

in order to provide the sustainability of region- ference in domestic affairs: Respecting the prin-

al security (Kazakh TV, 2019Kazakh TV (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Moreover, by ciple of nation states’ sovereign equality in the

means of new youth networks established by struggle against security threats, the SCO refus-

the Council, the impact of youth groups led by es to get involved in activities that might entail

the North’s nongovernmental organizations via interventions to states’ internal affairs. As such,

color revolutions may also be constrained (Gür- it is only engaged in combating threats which

can, 2019a:75) may undermine regional security and states’ ex-

istence. By this token, the SCO predominantly

Conclusion focuses on other dimensions of security striving

In the new millennium, the changing world oder to preclude the rise of threats. Employing an

has also shaped the content of the security con- analogy about human health, one might argue

cept. As the contemporary era does not mere- the SCO aims to bolster the immune system to

ly involve military threats, the provision of se- prevent disease.

curity is not viable through solely undertaking Trying to empower the emerging multipo-

military enterprises. Security can only assume lar system, the SCO tries to approach military

a sustainable existence when considered along topics in relation with economic, cultural, en-

its dimensions related to economy, politics, the ergy and environmental issues (Gürcan, 2019a,

environment and culture. The Western interven- 2019b). Hence, in its efforts to install region-

tionist perspective, although recognized as valid al safety, it tries to build a system based on the

in the post-modern literature, also tackles the win-win principle rather than following a ze-

multidimensional assessment of security and the ro-sum structure. In order to fully realize this

need for reducing military elements’ weight in system discursively adopted via several treaties,

an individualistic context. Thus failing to thor- the organization is to accelerate the implemen-

oughly interpret current developments, it serves tation of its declared intentions. In the age of

the preservation of a unipolar world order and nation-states, conflicts will be commonly oc-

ignores the principle of nation states’ sovereign curring around states’ individual interests. Yet,

equality, despite the fact that nation-stares are these interests may be welded into enhanced co-

still among the major players in global politics. operation on the grounds of win-win principles.

The present article introduced the SCO as an ex- From the view of the SCO members, for exam-

emplary case of non-traditional security based ple, there is a common threat against regional se-

on the principle of the sovereign equality of na- curity, which is rooted in terrorist, separatist and

tion-states. extremist activities. Damages that might stem

Within the framework of the nation-state- from these activities would not be restricted to

based understanding of non-traditional securi- countries where terror activities take place, but

ty, the SCO stands out by its struggle against the would also impact the whole region. Since the

most salient threat elements in the region, that region is currently interconnected via trade and

is, the “three evils” (terrorism, separatism, ex- energy routes, consequences of terrorism would

tremism). In doing so, it addresses the military, be destructive for all countries. A much-need-

economic, energyrelated and cultural aspects of ed multidimensional cooperation environment

international security. Aiming to cooperate in all for preventing this destruction is being forged

by the SCO. The organization has the necessary Gürcan, E. C. (2019a). Geopolitical Economy of Post-

material ground to enable both regional and in- Hegemonic Regionalism in Latin America and

Eurasia. Class History and Class Practices in the

ternational socio-economic development and Periphery of Capitalism Research in Political

the constitution of a multipolar world order. Economy, 34, 59-86.

Gürcan, E. C. (2019b). Multipolarization, South- South Cooperation and the Rise of Post-Hegemonic

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