China is the world’s largest country tential. China possesses only 7% of the world’s arable
by population size and fourth-largest by surface area. land and freshwater resources and 8% of the world’s
Combined with the excessive demographic and geog- natural resources, even though its population repre-
raphic size is the continued legacy of Western impe- sents 22% of the world’s population. Furthermore,
rialism in China as a former semi-colony, whose ne- only 19% of its surface area is suitable for human ha-
gative effects are amplified by current Western efforts bitation and 65% of its surface area is rugged, which
in geopolitical and geo-economic containment. This severely cripples China’s farming capabilities and faci-
adds to China’s resource scarcity that acts as another litates ethnic heterogeneity as a potential impediment
structural adversity constraining its development po- to political cohesion (Morton, 2006Morton (2006). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Naughton, 2018Naughton (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).
Despite such adversities, China has come to de- China’s over 4% loss of arable land between 1990 and
velop an exemplary model of economic development 2018, from 124,481,000 to 119,488,700 hectares (FAO,
that inspires much of the developing world. The 1979- 2021; Figure 1).
2018 period testified to an average growth rate of 9.4% China being the world’s largest pesticide producer
in the lead of the Communist Party of China (CPC), and consumer exacerbates this tendency. In the 1990-
which made China the world’s second-largest eco- 2018 period alone, China’s pesticide use rose by 129%
nomy, top producer, and the leading exporter of tech- (FAO, 2021FAO (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; see Figure 2). Furthermore, 70% of the
nological goods (X. Hu, 2020X. Hu (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). By 2015, China came world’s electronic waste is recycled in China at the ex-
to assume the global production of 40% of washing pense of environmental and public health. Industrial
machines, 50% of textiles, 60% of buttons, 70% of pollution, environmentally detrimental recycling pra-
shoes, 80% of televisions, and 90% of toys. Recently, ctices, and industrial agriculture combined to create
China has made significant progress in the production China’s “cancer villages” (Gardner, 2018Gardner (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Map 1 pro-
of added higher-value products in computer, aviation, vides a more detailed outline of China’s major envi-
and medical technology sectors, among others. Besi- ronmental problems (Sanjuan, 2018Sanjuan (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).
des its historic success in economic growth, industrial Figure 1. China’s arable land (1000 ha)
production and technological development, the Chi- http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/RL
nese economic miracle is credited for 70% of global poverty eradication between 1990 and 2015 (Gardner, 2018Gardner (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). The huge ecological cost of such a fast-paced and dramatic development –unprecedented in the history of human civilization– is nothing but expected. According to 2009 estimates, the annual economic cost of environmental pollution amounts to 3.8% of China’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Zhang, 2014:32-48). Over 80% of China’s underground and river water resources are no longer fit for human use Figure 2. China’s pesticides use (tonnes)
due to pollution (Jie, 2016Jie (2016). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Land pollution and soil http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/RL
erosion are also part of China’s major environmental problems. It is common knowledge that excessive use of pesticides and industrial pollution constitute a major source of land pollution, prompting the loss of organic matter and soil erosion. 2013 estimates suggest that close to 20% of China’s cultivated farmland suffers from contamination and 38% of the soil is subjected to erosion-related loss of nutrient and organic matter (Scott et al., 2018:26; Gardner, 2018:9Gardner (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Indeed, the contraction of arable land is a natural result of soil contamination and erosion. This also explains
Map 1. China’s enviromental constraints and risks
Global environmental indicators provide a gene- achieved the second-largest increase in EPI scores
ral picture of the environmental question’s severity in (8.4 EPI points) after South Africa (8.5 EPI points),
China. To elaborate, the Environmental Performance which testifies to China’s successful efforts at im-
Index (EPI) is a popular indicator to assess the impact proving its environmental standing (Table 1). In the
of national policies on the environment. EPI is made same 10-year period, India has recorded no visible
up of two major components: environmental health improvements, while the increase in EPI scores for
and ecosystem vitality. Environmental health looks Brazil, Russia, and the US are 4.9, 3.9 and 2.9, respe-
at the negative impact of environmental pollution on ctively. In the meantime, one should note that Chi-
human health as well as air and water quality and sani- na’s 2020 standing is 120 out of all the 180 countries
tation. In turn, ecosystem vitality focuses on variables included in EPI. China’s 2020 score is 37.3, which
such as carbon intensity, biodiversity, fish stocks, fo- outranks India with an EPI score of 27.6. However,
rest cover, wastewater treatment, and nitrogen balance China is outranked by Brazil, Russia, South Africa,
(Environmental Performance Index, 2020aEnvironmental Performance Index (2020a). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). and the US, whose annual scores are 51.2, 50.5, 43.1,
China’s EPI can be compared to other BRICS and 69.3, respectively (Table 1). Overall, this compa-
(Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) count- rison reveals that China has exhibited a strong envi-
ries, representative of the leading developing count- ronmental will and achieved policy success between
ries, and the United States (US), as the hegemonic 2010 and 2020, even though it continues to struggle
leader of the capitalist-imperialist system. A compa- with severe environmental problems (Environmen-
rison for the period 2010-2020 shows that China has tal Performance Index, 2020b).
Table 1. Environmental performance index ecological footprint with what is popularly known
Environmental 2020 EPI
Performance 10-Year Ranking as fine particles, or particulate matter 2.5 (PM2.5).
Index (EPI) Change in (out of 180 Available data allow us to comparatively assess the
Scores in 2020 EPI Scores countries) performance of the BRICS countries and the US
concerning the percentage of the national popula-
China 37.3 8.4 120
tion exposed to PM2.5 levels exceeding the World
Brazil 51.2 4.9 55
Health Organization (WHO) guideline value. One
Russia 50.5 3.9 58
striking fact that emerges from this comparison is
India 27.6 0 168
the successful performance of the US and Brazil, un-
South Africa 43.1 8.5 95
like China and other countries in our sample. The
United States 69.3 2.9 24
US and Brazil’s PM2.5 performance declined from
Ecological footprint is another global environ- 91.92% and 46.68% and from 68.12% and 3.34%,
mental indicator. It is popularly used to assess the respectively (World Bank, 2021, Figure 4World Bank (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Even
human impact on an environment by by reference though China failed to exhibit a successful perfor-
to changing natural resource demands for countries mance by 2017, its post-2017 performance offers
across the world. With ecological footprint, the use promising prospects. Recently, for example, Chinese
of ecological resources is compared with the size of cities used to occupy the forefront of the list of the
biologically productive land and sea area to estima- world’s most polluted cities. Looking at the 2020 list
te the earth’s capacity to renew the natural resources of the fifteen most polluted cities, however, it is now
and absorb waste (Robbins, 2007:509-10). Not surpri- being occupied by Indian and Pakistani cities. The
singly, the ecological footprint of China –as a rapidly only Chinese city that is ranked among the top fifte-
developing country– has known a constant increase, en polluted cities is Hotan (Earth.Org, 2021, IQAir,
particularly in the 2000s (Figure 3). 2021; Zhang, 2014).
China has been undergoing a sustainable ur- Figure 3. Ecological footprint of China ban revolution, which actually extends beyond the fight against air pollution. It is striking to notice how China’s daily capacity of urban sewage treatment rose from 125 million tons to 182 million tons in the period 2010-2015. This elevates China to be among the world’s strongest capacity of urban sewage treatment (China-ASEAN Environmental Cooperation, 2018China-ASEAN Environmental Cooperation (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Moreover, China has greatly improved its performance in urban sustainability by prioritising green architecture and transportation. According to the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) ra-
Air pollution stands out, perhaps, as the most ting system prepared by the US Green Building
visible environmental strain in China, which is why Council, China is the world’s second leader in sus-
it is worth supplementing our analysis of EPI and tainable architecture after Canada (Long, 2015Long (2015). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).
China’s strong leadership in sustainable urbanisation 2021). Indeed, this phenomenon has been a defining
can also be observed in its emergence as the world’s feature in the entire history of capitalism. However,
largest market for electric vehicles and bikes (Statista the dominance of neoliberalism as a global policy
2021; INSG 2014). As far as public transportation is paradigm since the 1970s gave a new impetus to eco-
concerned, China is the world’s largest producer and logical imperialism, where China emerged as the main
consumer of electric buses (Technavio, 2019; Sustai- target. This being said, China has refused to be victi-
nable Bus, 2020; MarketsandMarkets, 2021). Further- mised by such policies and actively took advantage of
more, China has turned itself into the world leader the changing policy environment without fully aban-
in green transportation, with Beijing and Shanghai doning its socialist system, albeit at grave ecological
having developed the world’s longest subway systems and socioeconomic costs in the medium term. In this
(Nedopil Wang, 2019Nedopil Wang (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). period, China relied on the state’s strong guidance on
Figure 4. PM2.5 air pollution, population exposed to reform and opening-up to build the “Chinese dream”
levels exceeding WHO guideline value (% of total) of socialist welfare through gradual technology trans-
https://data.worlbank.org fers and joint ventures in the longer term.
It is common knowledge that Western capitalism globalised through exploration and colonisation at the expense of grave human and ecological costs. These globalising efforts were amplified by the Industrial Revolutions, which eventually evolved into imperialist rivalries for spheres of influence and world wars. A subsequent wave of globalisation began in the 1970s as the world’s axis of production shifted to Asia, based on neoliberal policies that sought to take advantage of Asia’s cheap labour supply and other resources in the absence of strict political and environmental regulations. For some time, Western metropoles remained content with China’s accommodating policies, only until it succeeded in using the “privilege of backwardness” to
Evidently, China’s world-leading environmental consolidate its national economy rather than become
achievements go unnoticed due to the prevailing dis- a mere US colony governed by the World Bank and
course of “ecological imperialism” in environmental the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Upon Chi-
politics. Ecological imperialism describes the shift of na’s historic economic success and the continuation of
axis in global labour and natural resource exploitation the rule of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it
to the developing world at the expense of grave human seems that Western metropoles ended up developing
and ecological suffering. The economic and ecological a false sense of threat against their global hegemony,
burden of this axis shift is placed on the shoulders of which prompted them to launch a global campaign of
the developing world by Western metropoles, which imperialist propaganda framing China as an environ-
essentially seek to reduce the cost of production and mentally irresponsible villain versus the West as the
resource extraction (Gürcan, Kahraman, & Yanmaz, virtuous watchdog of environmental values.
The Political and Ideological Background of
According to Hu, energy conservation Ecological Civilization
and sustainable development are
central to improving the Chinese The first uses of the term “ecological civilization” can
population’s quality of life. Hu be found in the Soviet Union in the early 1980s. This
term was later adopted by Qianji Ye, a Chinese agrideveloped a “five-in-one” strategy that cultural economist, and brought into official use by combines the task of economic, political, the State Environmental Protection Administration cultural, and social construction with (SEPA). In China, ecological civilization gained po-
that of ecological civilization. pularity thanks to the efforts of the Hu Jintao admi-
This article seeks to transcend Western-centric nistration (2003-2013) (Greene, n.d.Greene (n.d.). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Pan, 2016:35Pan (2016). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). In
ecological-imperialist biases towards China’s environ- his report to the 17th National Congress of the CPC,
Hu put forth the notion of “harmonious society” by mental policies and provide a more balanced perspecreference to China’s traditional philosophical conceptive. What environmental issues occupy China’s main tion of harmony between humans and nature (天人 development agenda? How does China address these 合一思想) (Hu, 2007Hu (2007). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Kitagawa, 2016aKitagawa (2016a). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Pan, 2016Pan (2016). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). crucial issues? In what direction are China’s environ- Hu’s (2007Hu (2007). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.) conceptualisation of “harmonious society” mental policies evolving? The present article uses progoes beyond social equality and justice to embrace the cess tracing to answer these questions and argue that “balance between urban and rural development, deve- China has already developed a firm understanding of lopment among regions, economic and social developits environmental problems and their severity to the ment, relations between man and nature, and domestic extent that it now frames them as a “matter of survidevelopment and opening to the outside world”. Wortval” and has brought these issues to the centre of its hy of note is the degree to which this notion resonates revised national security strategy, particularly under with Mao Zedong’s ideas of “balanced development”
the Hu Jintao and Xi Jinping administrations. Chi- and “socialism with Chinese characteristics”, as were
na’s strategy is predicated on an alternative proposal described in his speech “On Ten Great Relationships”
for “ecological civilization” (shengtai wenming, 生态 (Mao, 1974Mao (1974). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).
文明), which may lead to the reversal of “ecological Hu (2007Hu (2007). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.) proposed a “Scientific Outlook on
imperialism”. Particularly noticeable in this regard is Development”, where harmonious society can be
China’s ongoing clean energy revolution as well as its achieved with a sustainable development model
strong leadership in green agriculture, urbanisation, that puts people and the environment first by mo-
and multilateral environmental cooperation. Accor- bilising science, technology, and education. Accor-
dingly, the present article is structured into three sec- ding to Hu, energy conservation and sustainable
tions. The first focuses on the political and ideological development are central to improving the Chinese
background of China’s “ecological civilization” project population’s quality of life. In this framework, Hu
and the second sheds light on China’s clean energy re- developed a “five-in-one” strategy (五位一体) that
volution. The article concludes with the third section combines the task of economic, political, cultural,
on China’s achievements in green agriculture and eco- and social construction with that of ecological civili-
logical urbanisation, explaining how they are reflected zation. This strategy emphasises how ecological sus-
in multilateral environmental cooperation. tainability and other tasks complement each other.
To elaborate, ecological sustainability is an essential were detained, and 18,199 officials were subjected
requisite for long-term economic growth for, without to disciplinary action (Goron, 2018:41). Ultima-
it, the higher goals of social welfare and life quality tely, the 19th National Congress of the CPC held in
cannot be attained (Kitagawa, 2016bKitagawa (2016a). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Pan, 2016Pan (2016). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). 2017 set the goal of greening and beautifying China
based on the principles of green development and ecological-civilization building (Chinadaily, 2017;
China started to frame the Yang, 2018).
environmental question as a matter China started to frame the environmental ques-
of “state survival” in the Xi Jinping tion as a matter of “state survival” in the Xi Jinping
era, which explains why this question era, which explains why this question occupies such
occupies such a strategic place in a strategic place in China’s revised national security
strategy. In his speech during the first meeting of China’s revised national security the Central National Security Commission of the strategy. CPC in 2013, Xi Jinping announced China’s new “Holistic National Security Outlook”, which cons-
Xi Jinping’s ascendancy to power furthered the titutes the backbone of China’s current national se-
strength of Hu’s emphasis on harmonious society curity and identifies 11 areas of priority in national
and ecological civilization (Xi, 2018:233). In Xi’s security. This sustainability included: political secu-
thought, the task of building an ecological civiliza- rity, homeland security, military security, economic
tion constitutes the building block of the Chinese security, cultural security, societal security, scien-
dream, i.e. “a dream of building China into a well- ce and technology security, information security,
off society in an all-round way and… a dream to ecological security, resource security, and nuclear
show the world China's commitment to making a security. Subsequently, China published its “Blue
greater contribution to the peace and development Book on National Security” in 2014, designated as
of mankind” (Xi, 2018:179). As such, the CPC the country’s first blue book on national security. A
adopted the task of building an ecological civi- landmark feature of this book is how it extends the
lization as a priority task in 2012, added it to the scope of national security to include environmental
CPC constitution, and imported it into the Chinese issues as a defining theme (Corff, 2018; Raik et al.,
constitution in 2018 (Goron, 2018:39). 2018).
Xi Jinping’s ascendancy to power led to the cre- “Made in China 2025”, China’s new techno-in-
ation of the first CCP organ specialised in sustai- dustrial strategy announced in 2015, is shaped by
nability: the “Task Force for the Promotion of Eco- Xi’s holistic conceptualisation of national security
nomic Development and Ecological Civilization”. In and identifies nine areas of priority for economic
2015, the CPC Politburo adopted the “Central Opi- development. These include enforcing green ma-
nion Document on Ecological Civilization Cons- nufacturing, improving manufacturing innovation,
truction” in March 2015. As part of China’s new integration between information technology and
centralised environmental inspections, over 29,000 industry, strengthening the industrial base, foste-
companies were penalised with fines totalling 1.43 ring Chinese brands, advancing restructuring of the
billion RMB (US$216 million), 1,527 individuals manufacturing sector, promoting service-oriented
manufacturing and manufacturing-related service Figure 5. CO2 emissions (metric tons per capita)
https://data.worlbank.org industries, and internationalising manufacturing. According to the Made in China 2025 strategy, the key to success in these tasks is in strategic sectors such as “new information technology, numerical control tools and robotics, aerospace equipment, ocean engineering equipment and high-tech ships, railway equipment, energy-saving and new energy vehicles, power equipment, new materials, biological medicine and medical devices, and agricultural machinery” (Ma, et al., 2018Ma, et al. (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; U.S. Department of Defense, 2020U.S. Department of Defense (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).
China’s Clean Energy Revolution in the Making
In 2009, China outranked the US as the world’s sing, particularly since 1997. The 1997-2018 perilargest energy consumer (Guo & Marinova 2014Guo & Marinova (2014). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). od alone testified to an over 250% rise (EIA, 2021EIA (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Chinese energy consumption greatly contributes to Figure 6). Indeed, coal represents the main source environmental degradation and climate change. In of China’s energy consumption, though China’s fact, 2016 estimates suggest that China exhibits a
better performance in constraining per capita car- coal production and consumption have been visibly
bon dioxide (CO2) emissions in comparison with decreasing since 2013. Between 2013-2019, China’s
the US, Russia, and South Africa (World Bank, coal production and consumption have decreased
2021; Figure 5). This being said, China recorded the from 4.4 and 4.7 billion short tonnes to 4.1 and 4.3
highest rise in per capita CO2 emissions (around billion short tonnes, respectively. This correspon-
380%) in our sample for the 1980-2016 period. The ds to a 7% decline in coal production and an 8.5%
US and Russia are the only countries that recorded a decline in coal consumption (EIA, 2021EIA (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Figure 7).
successful decrease in per capita CO2 emissions (Fi- However, China’s oil consumption has been rising
gure 5). Moreover, China’s 2018 performance reve- since 2013. The 2013-2019 period alone recorded a
als that coal consumption accounts for the greatest 29.5% increase (EIA, 2021EIA (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Figure 8). According to
share of its CO2 emissions (79.44%) as compared to 2019 estimates, coal consumption makes up 58% of
the 43.7% share of coal consumption in the world’s China’s energy consumption and remains its largest
total CO2 emissions (EIA, 2021EIA (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). The second-largest source. In China’s electricity production, the share
share of China’s CO2 goes to oil and other liquid fu- of coal consumption is more than 65.3%. Oil and
els (EIA, 2021EIA (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). The remaining share concerns na- other liquids account for the second-largest share
tural gas. of China’s total energy consumption with a share of
Energy intensity is an indicator that reflects per 20%. Finally, the share of hydroelectric energy and
capita energy consumption. One could observe that other sustainable sources of energy has reached 13%
China’s energy intensity has been rapidly increa- (EIA, 2021EIA (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Figure 9).
Figure 6. China’s energy intensity (MMBtu/per capita) 2015 estimates for the BRICS countries and the
https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/browser/ US suggest that Brazil, India, and South Africa led the share of sustainable energy consumption in overall national energy consumption. Since, China has increased the share of sustainable energy consumption from 11.7% to 12.4% (World Bank, 2021World Bank (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Figure 10). Importantly, China is going through a clean energy revolution since adopting the 2005 Sustainable Energy Law as well as the 12th and 13th Five-Year Plans covering the period 2011-2020 (Gardner 2018Gardner (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Guo & Marinova, 2014Guo & Marinova (2014). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Mathews & Tan, 2015Mathews & Tan (2015). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Su & Thomson, 2016Su & Thomson (2016). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). In as early as 2009, China became the world’s leading investor in sustainable energy technology
Figure 7. China’s coal production and consumption (Guo & Marinova, 2014Guo & Marinova (2014). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). In 2013, China was the top
https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/browser/ investor in clean energy with a total investment of 61.3
billion (Campbell, 2014Campbell (2014). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). 2015 marked the rise of China to the status of the world’s largest producer of solar, wind, and hydroelectric power (Gardner, 2018Gardner (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). In the 2008-2018 period, furthermore, China’s wind and solar energy consumption rose from 3 and 0 Mtoe to 83 and 40 Mtoe, respectively. Therefore, one could deduct that the share of China’s wind and solar power in national energy consumption rose from 0.1% in 2008 to 3.7% in 2018 (BP, 2019BP (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Figure 9. China's total primary energy consumption in 2019 (by fuel type) https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/browser/
Figure 8. China's oil consumption (million barrels/per day) https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/browser/
China’s Green Agriculture, Eco-Cities, Figure 10. Renewable energy consumption (% of total
and Multilateral Environmental final energy consumption)
https://data.worlbank.org Cooperation: An Unfolding Revolution
As mentioned in the introduction, agricultural pollution constitutes a major environmental problem in contemporary China. The country suffers from a scarcity of arable land being the world’s largest pesticide producer and consumer (China-ASEAN Environmental Cooperation 2018:158China-ASEAN Environmental Cooperation (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Scott vd. 2018:26). With this in mind, China is currently increasing its focus on green agriculture to fight against agricultural pollution and other environmental strains. China’s agriculture area under organic agriculture rose
by over 36% in the 2005-2018 period, from 2,301,300 Figure 11. Agriculture area under organic agriculture
to 3,135,000 hectares. China’s 2018 performance has (1000 ha)
http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/RL even surpassed that of the other BRICS countries and the US in this area (FAO, 2021FAO (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Figure 11). That being said, China has a long way to go given that its agriculture area under organic agriculture accounts for only 2.31% of its total agriculture area (FAO, 2021FAO (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). However, it is worth noting that China possesses the world’s largest agriculture area under organic farming after Australia and Argentina. It is possible to argue that China has also set an example for other countries in the expansion of its certified organic agricultural land use. China’s agriculture area under certified organic
agriculture soared from 10 hectares to 2,558,100 hec- 2000 by the year 2011 (Liu & Wang, 2010:107). The
tares from 2004-2018. Due to this, China has become eco-village movement was complemented by strong
the world’s largest consumer of organic food (FAO policy efforts emphasising the widespread adoption
2021; Willer, Lernoud, & Kemper, 2018). of green labelling standards such as green food (lüse
China’s green revolution in agriculture owes shipin), pollution-free food (wugonghai shipin) and
much to the efforts of central and local governments organic food (youji shipin) throughout the 1990s.
at prioritising green agriculture in their overall de- Meanwhile, the Ministry of Agriculture launched a
velopment strategy (Scott et al., 2018:46). This also green food programme in 1990 and the China Green
accounts for the rise of the eco-village movement Food Development Centre in 1992, which assumed
in China since the late 1980s. By 1990, China cre- the task of providing the necessary technical support
ated a total of 1200 “pilot eco-villages” (Liu et al., and quality control services to further this process
2021; Scott et al., 2018:38-39). This number rose to (Scott et al., 2018:39-41).
By 2011, China had created 42 certification cooperation. Indicative of Chinese leadership in the
offices, 38 quality control terminals, and 71 envi- global eco-city movement is the Tianjin China-Sin-
ronmental monitoring centres. Moreover, China’s gapore Eco-City, the Sino-Dutch Shenzhen Low-Car-
green food programme was complemented by the bon City, and the Sino-French Wuhan Ecological
Risk-Free Food Action Plan in 2001, which sought Demonstration City. Particularly, the construction
to fight chemical pollution, improve food security, of eco-industrial parks represents central instances
and accelerate organic certification (Scott et al., of environmental cooperation among developing
2018:39-41). Ultimately, the National Sustainable countries in the eco-city movement. The China-Sin-
Agriculture Development Plan (2015-2030) pro- gapore Suzhou Industrial Park contains green areas
vided a more systematic and holistic blueprint for and lakes, whereas the Sino-Singapore Tianjin eco-
China’s efforts in green agriculture. In 2017, No. 1 city possesses systems for energy efficiency, green
Central Document, an annual policy document is- transportation, green architecture, sewage treatment,
sued by the Central Committee of the CPC and the and recycling (China-ASEAN Environmental Coo-
State Council, elevated green and sustainable deve- peration, 2018:161; Liu & Lo, 2021:12).
lopment to the status of the second major development goal (Scott et al., 2018:39-41). The 2015 “One Belt, One Road” China’s efforts in improving green agriculture and building eco-villages go hand in hand with document pledged for the BRI its strategy of sustainable urbanisation (Hu, Liu, & to assume greater responsibility
Sun, 2017). The eco-city movement (生态城市) was in environmental protection,
launched in 2003 on the initiative of the Ministry biodiversity, and climate change.
of Environmental Protection. This initiative sought
to create a model of a low-carbon and circular eco- As a locomotive of multilateral environmental
nomy, expand green and protected zones, encourage cooperation, China has extended its leading role to
recycling and energy conservation, promote sustai- the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASE-
nable architecture, prevent air and noise pollution, AN). In 2009, China and ASEAN signed the Strategy
and improve social welfare and harmony in urban on Environmental Cooperation, which later contri-
areas (Wang, 2018Wang (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Zhou, He, & Williams, 2012Zhou, He, & Williams (2012). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). buted to the creation of the China-ASEAN Envi-
According to research from 2009 conducted by the ronmental Cooperation Centre. This was followed
International Eco-Cities Initiative (IEI), only 6 out by the China-ASEAN Environmental Cooperation
of the world’s 79 eco-cities originated from China. Action Plans for 2011-2013 and 2014-2015 as well
In the 2011 IEI survey, China’s eco-cities rose to 25. as the 2016-2020 Strategy on Environmental Coo-
Research from 2015 conducted by China identified peration. These strategies and action plans sought to
658 major eco-cities across the world, 284 of which improve regional efforts in research & development
originated from China. This means that more than and eco-city construction. Also included in such ef-
43% of the world’s eco-cities are currently based in forts is the Green Silk Road Envoys Program, which
China (Williams, 2017:4). sought to develop staff training, scientific exchange,
The eco-city movement also contributed to Chi- and political dialogue on matters of sustainability,
na’s efforts in improving multilateral environmental green innovation and entrepreneurship, biodiver-
sity, and ecological protection (China-ASEAN En- The BRI devotes special attention to ensure it
vironmental Cooperation, 2018:viii). does not impose policies on its participants and un-
China has recently accelerated its multilateral dermine their national sovereignty. The adoption of
environmental cooperation through the channel BRI’s principles on ecological civilization is left to
of the Belt & Road Initiative (BRI). The 2015 “One the initiative of participant states (Ikenberry & Lim,
Belt, One Road” document pledged for the BRI to 2017). In the Second BRI forum, BRI members were
assume greater responsibility in environmental pro- invited to join environmental initiatives such as the
tection, biodiversity, and climate change. The BRI International Green Development Coalition, the
developed a more systematic approach to sustaina- Sustainable Cities Alliance, the South-South Coo-
bility upon Xi Jinping’s 2016 call for the construc- peration Initiative on Climate Change, the Environ-
tion of a “green, healthy, intelligent, and peaceful” mental Technology Exchange and Transfer Center,
Silk Road, which led to the publication of the “Gui- the Environmental Big Data Platform, and the Gre-
dance on Promoting Green Belt and Road” and the en Investment Fund (Garey & Ladislaw, 2019; Iken-
implementation of the Green Action Plan and the berry & Lim, 2017). These initiatives gained mo-
Maritime Cooperation Vision driven by the prin- mentum in response to rising criticism on the part
ciple of maritime protection (Simonov, 2018Simonov (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). As a of civil society groups against the majority of BRI
result, the Second BRI Forum held in 2019 formu- investments being transferred to carbon-driven se-
lated green investment principles (Cheung & Hong, ctors and large-scale infrastructure development at
2021). the expense of local environments (Harlan, 2021Harlan (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).
The file photo shows a wind power plant in Zhangjiakou, North China's Hebei province. (Xinhua, 2021Xinhua (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)
focus on the energy, water, and transportation sec-
Chinese green investment tors (Chen, 2019Chen (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Almost half of these projects are
has supported environmental co-financed with other financial institutions such as
initiatives such as low-carbon the Asian Development Bank, the European Bank
transportation, high-speed trains, for Reconstruction and Development, the Islamic
clean energy projects, projects against Development Bank, and the World Bank (Rana,
environmental pollution, and clean 2019; Bustillo & Andoni, 2018). In the period 2016–
coal investments. As such, China has 2017, the AIIB approved nearly $5 billion in loans,
risen to the status of the world’s top and 35 infrastructure projects with an estimated va-
leader in green bonds and credits by lue of $28.3 billion (Cai, 2018Cai (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Chen, 2019Chen (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Unlike
outperforming the US in 2019. the World Bank, the AIIB does not impose political
conditionality and does respect the sovereignty of
Coupled with BRI’s forum initiatives is green claimant nations (Gürcan, 2020Gürcan (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).
finance, which includes financial practices invol- China’s initiative has led the AIIB to adopt a
ving bonds that fund sustainable projects, credits strong stand on ecological civilization. In 2016,
that support sustainable investments, and insuran- the AIIB adopted the Environmental and Social
ce schemes for protection against environmental Framework (ESF), which encourages financed de-
disasters. Chinese green investment has suppor- velopment projects to target social and environ-
ted environmental initiatives such as low-carbon mental sustainability in tandem, including green
transportation, high-speed trains, clean energy pro- economy, gender equality, and labor rights. As
jects, projects against environmental pollution, and regards environmental sustainability, the ESF pla-
clean coal investments. As such, China has risen to ces a strong emphasis on balanced development,
the status of the world’s top leader in green bonds decreasing fossil fuel consumption, environmen-
and credits by outperforming the US in 2019 (Green tal resilience, energy conservation, and biodiver-
Belt and Road Initiative Center, 2019b, Chinadaily sity (Gabusi, 2019Gabusi (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). In its second annual meeting
2020b; Harlan 2021; Rooney 2019). held in South Korea in 2016, the AIIB adopted the
The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank Sustainable Energy for Asia Strategy and approved
(AIIB) –as Asia’s first bank to be independent from its first loan for a project that seeks to reduce coal
Western hegemony and the world's fourth largest use in China. The AIIB’s fourth meeting was held
multilateral development bank– constitutes an im- in Luxembourg in 2019, where the bank reitera-
portant financial vehicle for BRI (Gürcan, 2020; ted its commitment to supporting green economy
Fahamu, n.d.; Koop, 2018). It started to operate in (Altay & Zeynepcan, 2020Altay & Zeynepcan (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). The AIIB’s new funds
2016 under China’s initiative as “the world’s first that target social and environmental sustainability
multilateral development bank (MDB) dedicated to include “the $75 million Tata Cleantech Sustainable
infrastructure” (Wilson, 2017Wilson (2017). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). The declared inten- Infrastructure On-Lending Facility (India), US$75
tion of the bank is to fill the “gap between supply and million Asia Investment Fund (Asia-wide), US$100
demand for infrastructure spending in Asia”, whi- million L&T Green Infrastructure On-Lending Fa-
ch was estimated at “as high as $8 trillion by 2020” cility to finance wind and solar energy projects (In-
(Cai, 2018Cai (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). The bank’s approved projects mostly dia), US$200 million TSKB Sustainable Energy and
A woman drops empty delivery boxes into a community recycling bin in Kunming, Yunnan province. (China Daily, 2018China Daily (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)
Infrastructure On-Lending Facility (Turkey), and desh Rural Roads Project, a US$40 million loan for
US$150 million to the India Infrastructure Fund to Laos' National Road 13 Improvement and Mainte-
finance infrastructure projects including renewable nance Project, a US$216.5 million loan for Indone-
energy (India)... [as well as] a US$500 million AIIB sia's National Slum Upgrading Project, a US$270.6
Asia ESG Enhanced Credit Managed Portfolio million loan for the Philippines’ Metro Manila Flo-
(Asia-wide) with Aberdeen Standard Investments, od Management Project, a US$400 million loan
to partner on developing debt capital markets for for India's Andhra Pradesh Urban Water Supply
infrastructure... [and the] US$ 500 million fund, and Septage Management Improvement Project, a
the Asia Climate Bond Portfolio, to accelerate cli- US$200 million loan for Sri Lanka's Colombo Ur-
mate action in the Bank’s members, and spur the ban Regeneration Project, and a US$100 million
development of the climate bond market.” (Vazqu- loan for Bangladesh's Municipal Water Supply and
ez & Chin, 2019: 598) Besides energy and infrast- Sanitation Project (Vazquez & Chin, 2019Vazquez & Chin (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).
ructure, the AIIB’s green framework extends to Finally, a word of caution: it is too early to es-
sustainable urbanization, green transportation, and timate the future of the AIIB and BRI’s contributi-
rural sustainability. These efforts are clearly exemp- ons to ecological civilization, given that the Green
lified in a US$329 million loan for India’s Gujarat Silk Road project was only put into action in 2019,
Rural Roads Project, a US$335 million loan for In- whilst the AIIB started to operate in 2016. However,
dia’s Metro Line Project, a US$140 million loan for there is room for optimism considering that China
India’s Madhya Pradesh Rural Connectivity Proje- has already become a leading country in multilate-
ct, a US$445 million loan for India's Andhra Pra- ral environmental cooperation.
An aerial view of the Taihu Lake scenic area in Huzhou, Zhejiang province. (China Daily, 2021China Daily (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)
The AIIB’s strategy on social and environmen- advantage of cheap labour supplies and access
tal sustainability has already been put into prac- natural resources in the absence of strict environ-
tice through green funds implemented in several mental regulations (Gürcan, Kahraman & Yan-
Asian countries. Furthermore, China’s green in- maz, 2021). China was the main target of these
vestments as part of the BRI have gained momen- pillaging efforts. However, it managed to benefit
tum since 2016. Cases include China’s increasing from these neoliberal assaults by utilising pub-
investments in Vietnam’s solar panels, its leading lic-driven policies, which, despite a number of
role in establishing the Quaid e-Azam Solar Park liberal compromises, served to protect itself from
and the Jhimpir Wind Farm in Pakistan, the Ais- becoming a neo-colony. Public-driven policies
ha Wind Farm and Wolayita Sodo Power Trans- also served to build a strong economy driven by
mission Line in Ethiopia, and other similar pro- national interests, thus generating grave concerns
jects in countries such as Thailand and Malaysia for Western metropoles whose global hegemony
(Chernysheva et al., 2019Chernysheva et al. (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). was challenged. As a result, Western metropoles
now resort to an ecological-imperialist campa- Review and Discussion ign that blames environmental degradation on
As a strong expression of ecological imperialism, developing countries, particularly China, whose
prompted by neoliberal globalisation and the leading environmental efforts –as the locomotive
Third Industrial Revolution, Western metropoles of global welfare and the greatest enemy of glo-
initiated the shift in axis for global production to bal poverty– are often undermined by this Wes-
Asia. This enabled Western metropoles to take tern-centric campaign.
and is the second leader in sustainable architecture,
China is in the early stages of building next to Canada. Many Chinese cities have dropped
an ecological civilization and still has a down or out of the list of the most polluted cities,
long way to go before it reaches a high leaving India and Pakistan at the top. China’s cities
level of ecological development. have also joined the ranks of those with the stron-
gest sewage treatment capacity in the world. Ano-
China has already developed a firm awareness ther point worth mentioning is that China has the
of its environmental problems, which are realised most electric vehicles, bikes, and efficient public
in its revised national security strategy that in- transportation. China is considered, not only as the
corporates the concept of “ecological civilization”. world’s centre of electric bus production and con-
China is in the early stages of building an ecologi- sumption but also as having cities with the world’s
cal civilization and still has a long way to go before longest subway systems. From 2013 onwards, the
it reaches a high level of ecological development. share of coal in China’s total energy consumption
Perhaps the most immediate threat to ecological has seen a noticeable decline, accompanied by the
civilization stems from the growing aggression of increasing share of renewable resources in total
US imperialism in the form of geopolitical conta- energy consumption as a result of conscious efforts
inment strategies, techno-economic wars against at a clean energy revolution. Key to this revolution
China, and other factors related to the COVID-19 in the making is China’s strong reputation as the
pandemic such as Western-fueled Sinophobia world’s top investor in clean energy. As such, it has
and pandemic-related economic strains (Gürcan, succeeded in creating the world’s largest wind, so-
2019; Gürcan, Kahraman & Yanmaz, 2021). Ne- lar, and hydroelectric systems for power generation.
vertheless, China’s key achievements on the path Finally, concerning China’s unfolding revolution in
towards ecological civilization involve a series of sustainable agriculture, one should acknowledge its
three unfolding and mutually conditioning re- adoption of green food standards, the expansion
volutionary processes that also lead the way in of its agricultural area under certified organic far-
international environmental cooperation, as em- ming, and especially the fact that, as a world leader
bodied in China’s role in ASEAN, the AIIB, and in green agriculture, it now has the third-largest
the Green Silk Road. They include a clean energy agricultural area under organic farming. Ultima-
revolution, a sustainable agricultural revolution, tely, the continuation and amplification of all these
and a green urban revolution. achievements are predicated on the future deter-
China has already become a global leader in mination of the Xi Jinping administration (and its
green finance. It leads the eco-city movement with successors) to build ecological civilization while
over 43% of the world’s eco-cities being Chinese facing imperialist aggression.
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