Green Hydrogen: The Common Thread Of The Belt And Road Initiative

Introduction due to exergy mismatches between supply and

IPCC’S SIXTH ASSESSMENT REPORT ON demand exergy of a given system or equipment.

Climate Change shows that limiting global These emission responsibilities also hold for

warming to around 1.5°C requires global 100% renewables, as shown in Figure 8 in the

greenhouse gas emissions to peak before 2025 following sections.

and be halved by 2030. In this respect, cities In this quest, the BRI bears a great

need to be prioritized for decarbonization as an responsibility because all major cities and

integral vector among all other environmental urban areas are on the course of the BRI and

parameters and emissions resources in the they must be interconnected and incorporated

form of net-zero (IPCC, 2022IPCC (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Kilkis S., 2022Kilkis S. (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). mainly from energy and exergy points of view.

In this respect, net-zero exergy districts and Almost a quarter of global GDP is produced in

urban areas must be established against global the BRI countries.

warming (Kılkış, Ş. 2012; Kılkış, Ş., 2014Kılkış, Ş. (2014). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Therefore, decarbonizing the BRI becomes

Exergy is the useful work potential part of a even more critical. The main question is

given energy flow and plays an important role in whether economic or technical instruments

recognizing the nearly avoidable CO2 emissions play the dominant role in decarbonization.

The report by Vivid (2019Vivid (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.) for decarbonizing and industry (Forman vd., 2016: 1568-1579).

the BRI envisions the key solution starting Therefore, it is evident that today, the most

from a `green finance` roadmap (Vivid, 2019Vivid (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). abundant form of global heat is low-enthalpy

However, standard economic rules like the (low-temperature, low exergy) renewable

linearized Pareto principle and green financing and waste heat resources below 100°C, which

instruments, the so-called sustainable funds may not be used to generate electricity. On

proposed by IEA, cannot satisfy the Paris the other hand, if a sustainable and rational

Agreement goals alone. The reasons are energy corridor will link the BRI countries

far beyond the comprehension of classical at large, such heat resources must also be

economics, and this article reveals that transnationally collected, stored, transported,

technical issues are dominant for sustainably and exchanged among several countries.

potential solutions, which stretch far beyond However, it is quite impossible to transport

today`s anticipation of politicians and even heat and cold through hydraulic pipelines

scientists. for long distances due to pumping electricity

demand exergy and thermal power distributed and transported. Thermo-mechanical losses

The greening of the BRI must seek on the way further make the transport and

solutions beyond economics with distribution of low-exergy thermal power for

innovative engineering solutions the BRI, spanning thousands of kilometers,

to be collaboratively developed by impossible. The unit exergy of electric power

the BRI countries. is 0.95 kW-hexergy/kW-henergy, whereas

the unit exergy of thermal power distributed in a district energy system is less than 0.10.

By this token, the greening of the BRI must seek Therefore the unit exergy imbalance makes it

solutions beyond economics with innovative critical to limit the pumping capacity and heat

engineering solutions to be collaboratively transport to shorter distances, depending on

developed by the BRI countries. Obviously, the amount of energy and exergy transported

renewable and waste energy resources play (Kilkis, B., 2020cKilkis, B. (2020c). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

the biggest role in decarbonization. However, Despite this fact, ignoring the exergy issue,

the big question is how to be implemented this is one of the main reasons why the EU

and sustained in the BRI countries with the (European Union) is considering total `green`

challenge of transporting heat and electricity electrification with heat pumps and district

over several thousand kilometers. Ibrahim energy systems on the demand side of the

Kolawole Muritala reveals that 72% of the built environment by converting part of the

global primary energy consumption is lost electricity back to heat and cold by heat pumps,

after conversions. In further detail, 63% of thus eliminating long-distance transport of

the considered waste heat streams arise at a thermal power (EU, 2018EU (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). However, according

temperature below 100°C, in which electricity to the second law of thermodynamics (exergy),

generation has the largest share, after transport the coefficient of performance of the heat

pumps, COP, must be greater than eight in electric power demand in terms of energy,

heating and ten in cooling, respectively, using renewable and waste energy sources, abundant

conventional HVAC (Heating, Vantilating, globally, must be utilized for minimum CO2

and Air-Conditioning) systems to benefit the emissions.

environment. Otherwise, nearly avoidable CO2 Furthermore, renewable energy storage

emissions responsibilities will arise because and connecting to the existing grids are

there will be a negative mismatch between major problems. Different heat sources are

the electrical power value-adding potential difficult to mix and match in terms of their

and the value-adding potential of the thermal enthalpy (temperature; exergy). Added value

outputs of the heat pumps. Today, such high potentials may be lost. Consequently, because

COP values are not possible even if heat low-enthalpy heat (below 100°C) cannot

pumps are cascaded (Kılkış, B., 2021aKılkış, B. (2021a). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). This be efficiently converted to electricity, these

fact brings us to the question of whether total globally abundant energy sources will remain

electrification, especially on a trans-national unutilized at the source side and wasted on the

scale, is environmentally rational and sound or environment, thus also contributing to global

not. If not, what are the alternatives? warming. For very low-enthalpy heat sources,

an option may be residential water heaters

Electric Power Grid or Hydrogen Grid on using absorption technology, which may peak

a Trans-National Scale? the temperature above the Legionella risk

mitigation level of 65°C. However, they have a

The biggest remaining question is whether high initial cost and working fluid challenges.

renewable and waste energy sources should be

transported as 100% electricity. There are four Challenge 3

conflicting handicaps to transport electricity Converting electricity on the demand side and heat in the BRI. These are summarized site back to heat and cold with electrically below: operated heat pumps with COP values less

Challenge 1 than eight for heating and ten for cooling

means emissions responsibilities. Trying

Since electrical power lines cannot transport to heat and cool only by electricity on the

thermal energy, a second or even a third demand side with power-to-heat systems will

pipeline (transporting cold) will be necessary overload the existing grids unless costly and

for the BRI. Therefore, it may seem rational time-consuming retrofits and upgrades are

to transport only electricity and leave behind made and new transmission lines are deployed.

renewable and waste energy sources. However, These actions mean that most existing

this will mean that abundant energy sources AC grids have to be replaced/retrofitted/

are untapped and left behind. appended. Although, HVDC (High-Voltage

DC) power makes sense because renewables Challenge 2 (wind and solar) already generate DC power.

While global thermal demand is more than This convenience eliminates AC to DC and DC

Figure 1. Hydrogen and Electric Power Transmissions must remain as electricity and must be used

as electricity (in applications with no other options like lighting, communications, electric mobility, and industry). At any rate, there is a definite optimum point average regarding total electrification and hydrogen mix distribution, which depends on the technology, supplydemand, population profile, climate, and availability of renewables. These variables need to be considered in a case-by-case analysis for every country and region. Therefore, even with renewables, the EU goal of `total` electrification is a dream that will never come true.

Source: EEP, 2021. To mobilize the low-enthalpy and

waste energy sources in the quest for

to AC inverters, provided that all household decarbonization, total electrification and

units are also converted to DC, which is long-distance thermal power transportation

another costly issue. Most EU officials have do not seem rational candidates for problem-

drawn total electrification of the EU roadmap, solving, so another transport medium must

and at least 80% of them own shares in electric be sought. Plainly stating, electricity cannot

power companies (Private communications transport everything. We need more elegant

during 2019 Helsinki ETIP RHC Meeting). solutions. As this paper shows, hydrogen is the

However, a recent study claims that HVDC is best way to store and transport energy over

the cheapest and easiest way to use existing AC long distances, provided that some precautions

grid lines (EEP, 2021EEP (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Holland is one of the are taken and maintained: hydrogen has

pioneering countries (IEC, 2022IEC (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Hydrogen small but non-zero global warming potential

does not need AC-DC conversions because (GWP), which requires leakage management

it is not electricity and is not subject to any over long distances, and flammability must

distance break-even point (Fig. 1). Hydrogen also be considered. Furthermore, transport

may be transported to any distance. by liquefaction or compression of hydrogen

Challenge 4 is energy-intensive, and these must also be

provided from green systems with optimized

Rather than converting part of the electricity designs. At any rate, there is a large distribution

back to heat or cold, generated electricity from gap today in terms of hydrogen over the BRI

renewables should be used for more rational course across the continents. Figure 2 shows

applications like lighting, mass transport, and that there is no hydrogen trade route yet on

industry. BRI leaving a large gap on the energy transition

These challenges indicate that electricity map of the initiative.

Figure 2. Hydrogen Trade Routes

Source: IRENA, 2022.

If all combined into one singular medium of by capturing and mixing the coke/coal flue gas

energy and then stored and transported within and mixing with hydrogen or via biogas. Coke/

the same medium for long distances and then coal flue gas is rich in hydrogen at about 55 %

converted back to heat, cold, and electrical and methane at 27% (coke oven gas) (İlbaş,

power with high efficiency in any dynamic 2017). Therefore, rather than recovering the

proportion of demand, the useful work heat of the flue gas, utilization of it as a fuel

potential of the original energy constituents mix is more efficient and effective, as it can

might increase. This route will link collective be readily mixed with hydrogen. The lower

farms and cities on a single hydrogen pipeline heating value (LHV) of coke oven gas is 3678

over long distances. kcal/m3, whereas hydrogen has an LHV value

With the advent of superconductivity, of 2583 kcal/m3. LHV of biogas is about 3800.

hydrogen at cryogenic temperatures may Hydrogen seems to have the lowest LHV, but

replace the use of precious helium gas, this is due to its lowest density. Mixing may be

provided that cryogenic hydrogen is produced achieved at the starting point of the B&R in

from renewables. eastern China, where most coal consumption

Such an energy gap is not a coincidence for occurs in industry and power plants (see

the BRI. Although relatively rich in renewables, Figure 3) or along the road with local biogas

power generation with renewables and and other coke/coal gas sources. Furthermore,

transmission systems are quite weak. Coal is coal may be transported in coal-water slurry,

still used extensively and may be made greener yet water spending, quality degradation, and

Figure 3. Renewables and Major Waste Heat Sources on the Belt and Road Initiative

Source: IRENA, 2022.

associated environmental concerns must be and cheaper, electrical energy storage is still

addressed. Pumping exergy demand must expensive and environmentally costly in terms

also be optimized for minimum emissions of battery storage. Hydrogen is a more suitable

responsibility. energy storage medium without requiring

The B&R region is rich in renewables and energy conversions prior to the final use. It is

waste heat (Figure 3) yet relatively poor in power stored as hydrogen upstream.

transmission and generation (Figure 4). Trans- What is missing for the BRI is a common

national collocation and conglomeration are thread that unifies all forms of energy on a

a compound problem, except for geothermal single thread. Hydrogen seems to be the only

and waste heat from fossil fuel power plants. feasible thread.

Renewables are intermittent except for biogas B&R with hydrogen may reverse this trend

and geothermal. Therefore, energy storage in shown in Figure 4, where hydrogen eliminates

terms of electricity, heat, and cold is necessary. the necessity of collocation and coexistence

Although thermal energy storage is simpler of renewables and waste heat sources and fills

Figure 4. Global Power Lines and Power Generation Maps

Source: IRENA, 2022.

Figure 5. Major Cities on the Belt and Road Initiative

Source: ALEPH, 2020.

an important gap of energy transit shown in also be mixed with hydrogen for optimal cost-

Figure 2. effectiveness.

Major cities are already on the BRI on land. Problems with Renewables Therefore, the energy corridor must be on the

same line. However, there is not any renewable There are problems with singular solar and

energy corridor yet, except in Europe. The wind applications:

main pipeline must follow the transnational All singular applications for generating

railroad. electric power, like PV panels, have waste heat.

Figures 5 and 6 imply that a singular Even large wind turbines. PV panels generate

hydrogen line should follow the same route, electric power but reject the solar heat that

especially close to the railroad link with an they absorb. The nacelle of large wind turbines

under-the-sea passage in the Caspian Sea. generates heat due to electro-mechanical

Rich natural gas reserves in Azerbaijan may system inefficiencies. Flat-plate collectors

Figure 6. The Railroad Link on the Belt and Road Initiative

Source: Uysal, 2019.

Figure 7. Singular Solar Photovoltaics on the must not exceed the heat claimed from the stack

Ground and Wind Turbines. Waste of Land gas of a coal-fired power plant (Kılkış, B., 2019bKılkış, B. (2019b). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

Combined heat and power systems using biogas must also be carefully designed and operated to provide the maximum exergy, sum of electricity, heat, and cold (Kilkis, B., & Kilkis, S., 2007Kilkis, B., & Kilkis, S. (2007). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Solar Energy

Figure 8 depicts that even PV panels actually have unutilized waste heat. When this heat is not utilized, someone else will produce the same heat again possibly by consuming some fossil fuel, rather

Source: Freepik, n.d. than using this lost heat. This reveals the fact that

the PV panel is responsible for a carbon dioxide generate heat but miss the opportunity emission, albeit indirectly (ΔCO2). In Figure of generating power with higher exergy. 8, it is seen that a sample PV panel has a ΔCO2 Therefore, the latter (FPC) must be avoided responsibility as much as the CO2 it draws from except for some local applications. Figure 7 its carbon stock because it produces electricity, and shows a single wind turbine atop a bare tower as a result, this PV panel does not actually make where individual solar PV panels occupy the a net contribution to the environment. The planar land. This arrangement is not efficient for collector, on the other hand, is responsible for land use (land use effectiveness, LUE). The more than it absorbs from the carbon stock. The individual solar PV panels could be mounted use of heat pumps is also not a solution unless the on the bare tower to improve LUE (See Figure Coefficient of Performance (COP) exceeds eight. 16 in the following sections).

The Problems with Waste Heat and Power Wind Energy

Plants Figure 8. Different Solar Energy Systems (Except

Besides the unutilized waste heat available from concentrating solar tower applications)

solar systems, wind turbines, and geothermal power plants, major heat waste occurs in thermal power plants through their cooling towers, which also spend water and release water vapor into the atmosphere. City municipal wastewater also carries low-temperature heat. These are important energy sources, but the electro-mechanical systems like pumping motors and heat exchangers must be carefully designed so that power exergy does not exceed the thermal power exergy

obtained. For example, the fan motor capacity Source: Kilkis, B., 2022b.

Figure 9. Direct Electric Resistance Heating in a any electric battery will be responsible for ozone

Chinese Building with Wind Energy depletion potential (ODP) (Kılkış, B., 2019aKılkış, B. (2019b). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

Figure 10 shows an apparent improvement by using a heat pump to utilize part of the wind power to generate heat for comfort heating. This alternative works only if the COP exceeds eight and adds too much cost. Otherwise, the coupling of a wind turbine with a heat pump is not carbon-free. In addition, the refrigerant leakage will be responsible for the ozone-

Source: Kılkış, B., 2021c. depletion index, ODI, which is a combination

Heating in cold climates of the Northern of ODP and global warming potential (GWP).

provinces of China is considered to be Geothermal Energy accomplished by wind energy to replace coal

and lignite by using electricity directly for About 80% of the geothermal energy reserves

heating through electric coils (Figure 9). If this are close to or below 100°C, leaving only a

alternative is used for buildings in cold climates small margin of power generation with organic

in China, the result will be disappointing or, Rankine cycles (ORC). Figure 11 shows a large

better to say, catastrophic for the environment. array of dry cooling fans, occupying much more

The exergy difference between electricity and area than the plant itself. It rejects heat from

electric heating for comfort is about 0.90 kW- the atmosphere. Fans consume electric power.

hexergy/kW-henergy, almost equal to a coal Even the electricity is green for the geothermal

stove in terms of CO2 emissions responsibility plant; this means nearly voidable emissions

(Kılkış, B., 2021aKılkış, B. (2021a). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). responsibility, because this amount of electrical

In the nacelle for moderately-large-sized wind energy could be supplied to the grid, reducing

turbines, the nacelle heat is wasted. In addition, the power load on thermal power plants. Land

Figure 11. Only Power Generation with Organic Rankine

Figure 10. Wind-Driven Heat and Cold Supply with Cycle in Geothermal Field with Wasted Heat, CO2

a Heat Pump emissions responsibility, and Excess Land Use

Source: Kılkış, B., 2021c. Source: Jesdergi, 2022.

Figure 12. Land Use Effectiveness of Different Wind

Renewables The wind turbine of moderate size in the range up to 1 MW in rural areas with domiciles may utilize the electro-mechanical waste heat in the nacelle with ORC for additional power and low-temperature heat. Geothermal

Source: Kılkış, B., 2021c. Figure 14. Cogenerating Wind Turbine

use is also important. ORC+heat is the best utilized, and the fans shown in Figure 11 are eliminated.

Solutions

Solutions will pave the way to new technology and international collaboration with concerted R&D and P&D, new Jobs, new technologies, and

a better economy besides the hydrogen economy. Source: Kılkış, B., 2020b.

Solar

Figure 13 shows the aforementioned new From a low enthalpy geothermal well A

generation PVT3 system. Only such a system district heating that can be realized is

can have negative carbon characteristics. depicted in Figure 15. No heat pump is used

Figure 13. Advanced Photo-Voltaic-Heat Systems with high Efficiency Figure 15. Utilizing Waste Heat from ORC for District Heating and System

Source: Kılkış, B., 2020d. Source: Kılkış, B., 2020.

for temperature peaking, however, heat pipe Figure 16. Compound Renewable Energy Utilization

Below and Above the Ground radiators or floor heating systems that can operate at temperatures as low as 35°C are used.

Equipment Side

In district energy systems for heating, the biggest challenge is the temperature incompatibility of low supply temperatures and the higher temperature demand of the existing heating equipment. The solution is low-exergy heating and cooling equipment with heat pipe technology (Kılkış, B., Çağlar, & Şengül, 2021Kılkış, B., Çağlar, & Şengül (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

Compound Renewables Source: Kilkis, B., 2022a.

Renewables above and below the ground Energy, Water, Food, Farms, Cities, and

are combined to form an all-in-one 100% Economy Nexus: An Example

power generation and storage medium

based on hydrogen. This arrangement also Figure 17 shows a hybrid farm, small

improves LUE. agricultural industry, and habitat (Kılkış,

Figure 17. Green Hydrogen-Based Collective Farm Model

Source: Kılkış, B., 2020a.

B., 2020a). In this model, the irrigation is Conclusion

performed by DC-powered pumps from the

wells. Power is collectively generated by the Hydrogen is the best alternative to harness

on-site wind turbines and PVT panels, which renewables and store and transnationally

at the same time keep the PV cells cool to transport energy. The key innovation is shown

maintain their rated efficiency. Hydrogen in Figure 18. This innovation comprises

generation by water electrolysis, heat pumps, condensing all energy forms into hydrogen,

hydrogen storage, adsorption cooling, transporting them with hydrogen, and then

greenhouse operations, small industry like expanding hydrogen again to different forms

agricultural product drying, food packaging, of energy on demand. On the hydrogen route,

hydrogen mobility, desiccant moisture control cities, farms, and industry exchange energy

in the buildings, fuel cells, waste heat recovery similarly on their minor-scale hydrogen

are the main features. economy.

Figure 18. Ultimate Solution: One Road, One Belt, One Energy Corridor, On a Singular Meeting Line of Green Hydrogen

Source: Kılkış, B., 2022.

Figure 19. Global Map of Natural Gas Pipelines implemented for a green energy belt for a

sustainable future and potentially the largest positive impact towards satisfying the Paris Agreement goals with 126 countries that B&R covers (Vivid, 2019Vivid (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). A primary transnational infrastructure is already available. According to Figure 19, there is already a natural gas pipeline on the main B&R route. It may be used for hydrogen transport by reversing today’s natural gas flow.

Source: IRENA, 2022. Acknowledgement

The prerequisite to such a success Assoc. Prof. Dr. Şiir Kılkış, the lead

is developing innovative technologies author of IPCC, has provided the most

concerning renewable energy systems and valuable material, knowledge, and deep

utilizing the abundantly available and waste insight during this research. Her unique

energy sources and ambient energy sources. contributions and dedicated support are

It also requires more diversity and flexibility greatly appreciated.

in one energy transport medium (hydrogen).

Hydrogen may mix natural gas, coal flue gas References

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