Introduction events of that time, full of drama and the brightness
of paints of historical scenes. Maybe, only the rivers,
ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS ON valleys, and gorges which ran the road could be mute
the territory of the Far East during the last decades witnesses of the distant past. Each archaeological
show the intensity and energy of activities on the discovery along these routes brings us an echo of
routes of the Silk Road and how far the works of arts ancient cultures and civilizations. In each discovery,
and crafts have penetrated Western countries. On researchers try to restore the thread linking the
the Silk Road, tireless traders led caravans to distant present to antiquity and attempt to answer the
lands, carrying crafts, works of art, and treasures of questions about their origins, their religions, and
the subsoil. Along with them were artists, monks, their language. They carried their culture to the
and pilgrims, promoting religious teachings and other parts of the world. We can only try to build
technique ideas. In some cases, peoples from various a hypothesis based on the analysis of fragmentary
ethnicities were pressed into moving by a powerful written sources and remnants of material culture.
enemy, searching for safer and more fertile land. The written sources, particularly the Chinese
Along the same routes were organized military chronicles, give us information about the powerful
expeditions. For example, we know from the waves of movement of the nomadic tribes of
Chinese chronicle (Shiji, n.d.: Chapter 123) about Xiongnu, Yuezhi, and Wusun. In the struggle for
a military campaign organized by order of the survival and vital space, they often faced each other
Han dynasty emperor for the “heavenly horses” of in combat. The defeated peoples were forced to leave
Dayuan (Fergana). A lot is written about Sogdian their lands and seek for a new one.
trading posts of the early Middle Ages, and brilliant The period between the late second century BC
discoveries of Chinese archeologists confirm and the first centuries AD, which makes up the
cultural influences and interactions. chronological framework of this paper, is scarcely
We will probably never be able to touch the reflected in the Western written tradition and
Figure 1. Map with main geographical points and archaeological sites of nomad migration period
Source: Abdullaev, 2017.
Chinese chronicles. However, we have relatively rich first option that comes to mind is, in my opinion, the
material which multiplies with every archaeological well-known trade routes, the most comfortable and
season. In fact, all kinds of information demonstrate well-tested for many generations.
the intensive cultural contacts of peoples who lived The kurgan burials are our primary source for
along the routes of the Great Silk Road (Fig. 1). knowledge about the nomads’ material culture. (Fig.
Namely, we associate migrations of various tribes 2). A detailed study of the artifacts and their location
and successive displacement of each other with this makes it possible to judge the level of the kurgan’s
period. Speaking figuratively, the conquerors pass in development and, more importantly, to trace the
Central Asia, nearly stepping on each other’s toes. approximate route of their journey. Weapons,
One of the most significant events on the western clothing and accessories, works of art, and everyday
borders of China was a clash of two powerful tribes objects fall under the category of material findings
of the Xiongnu and the Yuezhi. The consequence of that can be the most illuminating. Not all of them
this collision was the migration of the Yuezhi (Da were well-preserved because of the vulnerability
Yuezhi) to the west. We cannot know the exact routes and fragility of the materials. For example clothes
of these tribes. They are often unexpected, but the can only be preserved in particularly favorable
conditions, such as the dry sands of Xinjiang and the layers, they acquire exceptional value as a historical
permafrost of the Altai. Ultimately, it depends on the source. Samples of Western art, usually with
unique features of the soil and microclimate. There images on the theme of ancient (Greek or Roman)
are ceramics, metal products, and tools among the mythology, found in China, Mongolia, and other
findings, which can be found almost everywhere. countries of the Far East, are quite often covered in
Some of them are quite characteristic and, at the scientific literature (Marshak 2004; Polosmak et al.
same time, common. They can serve as markers of 2011; Li Yusheng, 2020).
where they were produced and how they reached This paper, on the other hand, aims to show
other regions by trade or military means, then certain artifacts made in Far East countries. They
moved in space and time together with their owners, were found in the archaeological context of the sites
outlining their route. of Sogdia and Bactria and indicate the location of
Especially valuable are the works of art that reveal different ethnicities on the Great Silk Road. Notably,
the many aspects of the material and spiritual culture some categories of findings were rarely found in the
of the peoples of antiquity. Found in archaeological previous period, if not found at all. All this may
Figure 2. Map of Necropolis (kurgans) in Nomad migration period
Source: Abdullaev, 1995.
testify that these things penetrate Central Asia of the frame and wall paintings. This is a special kind
during the migration period, specifically with a of source, which reveals both the artistic features of
big migration wave of Yuezhi. the monument and its style, and provides a wealth
of useful information and a narrative character. The
Figurative art as a narrative source examples below justify this thesis.
In the early 1960s, a remarkable discovery of One of the most saturated sources for studying the a clay sculpture in Khalchayan was made, which cultural and ethnic identification of the peoples on raised questions about the army of Central Asia and the Silk Road are the monuments of fine arts that are its importance in the ancient world. For the first not subject to transport and were created at the place. time in Bactria, the army was presented as bright This gives them exceptional value as a source. This and expressive images of warrior-nomads: a lightly category may include the monumental sculpture armed cavalry and heavily armed soldiers, so-called made of clay and the reliefs that make up the interior cataphracts. The subject of interpretation of the Khalchayan
Figure 3. Portrait of a “Heraios Prince” reliefs that decorated the walls of the staterooms
was already covered in previous studies (Bernard, 1987Bernard (1987). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Abdullaev, 1992Abdullaev (1992). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Abdullaev, 1995aAbdullaev (1995a). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Abdullaev, 1995bAbdullaev (1995a). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Bernard & Abdullaev, 1997Bernard & Abdullaev (1997). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Abdullaev 2005Abdullaev (2005). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Abdullaev 2007Abdullaev (2007). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Here it should be noted that, according to the studies of G. A. Pugachenkova on the Khalchayan reliefs, there was a scene of “the triumphant march of the soldiers”. The subject had been revised and interpreted in a new way. The composition actually shows a battle scene, which involves not just two warring groups of warriors but, judging by the physical type and attributes, the representatives of different ethnic groups. Light cavalry, represented in the fragments of sculptures depicting horse archers, were more mobile and fastpaced in their attacks on the enemy and sudden retreats. [1] For the members of this group, it is characteristic of an anthropological type with some Mongoloid admixture. One of these characters, based on the analogy with coins of Heraios, was conditionally named by G.A. Pugachenkova as “Heraios’ Prince” (Fig. 3). The second group of fighters is an armored cavalry, whose physical appearance is more typical Source: Abdullaev, 2005. of Caucasians. In this respect, the most expressive
is the warrior in a helmet with armor in the shape Figure 4. Bust of a warrior in helmet and high collar
of a tall expanding bell-shaped collar that protects the neck (Fig. 4). The image is vaguely reminiscent of the Spanish Grandees in defensive armor with an expression of deep sadness on a narrow, lengthened face. It reminds one of the hero of Cervantes, if a literary anachronism is allowed. Actually, even if we have a lot of written sources about these knights of Europe, we know almost nothing, except fragments of classical authors (Strabo, Pompeius, Trogus). So, who are the armored knights from Khalchayan and other archaeological objects found on the territory of Central Asia? In previous works, I identified defeated heavily armed soldiers with the nomadic tribe Sakaraukes and lightly armed cavalry with images of Yuezhi. (Bernard 1987Bernard (1987). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Abdullaev 1995aAbdullaev (1995a). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Abdullaev, 1995bAbdullaev (1995a). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Abdullayev, 1997Abdullayev (1997). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Abdullaev, 2005Abdullaev (2005). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.; Abdullaev, 2007Abdullaev (2007). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). The expressive and eloquent material from Central Asia demonstrates the high level of military affairs of the region in ancient times. The Greco- Bactrian state’s relations with the surrounding
peoples, particularly nomads, were frequently Source: Abdullaev, 1995.
hostile. Later, the Greco-Bactrian state collapsed
under the onslaught of the same nomadic tribes. Bactria, the origin of this type of weapon is still
The discovery of Ai Khanum, an ancient Greek open. We do not have sufficient grounds to believe
city far in Asia, and the study of its arsenal has that cataphracts occurred on the territory of Bactria,
become one of the breakthroughs in the field of even though this is the second monument that gives a
military affairs of the Hellenistic era (Bernard, reason for this assumption. In my opinion, it is most
1980: 452). [2] The finding of a specific armor in likely that cataphracts as a category of heavy cavalry
the arsenal indicates the presence of cataphracts were created in the milieu of professional armies. It
in the Greco-Bactrian army as a fighting unit. It is hard to say who (what ethnisity) properly was the
is dated quite accurately to 150 BC, confirmed by creator. It is very possible that it is somewhat of a
archaeological context. Meanwhile, 145 BC for phenomenon of convergence. We could advance the
Ai Khanum is considered as a period of raids by supposition that different ethnic communities might
nomads (Bernard, 1980: 456). realize this idea. I think that cataphracts came from
While the Ai Khanum archeological site shows the East, and perhaps Central Asia. Considering
some of the earliest evidence of cataphracts in the similarities between the vambraces (plate
armor covering the arms) found in Ai Khanum and the embossed lines that support a sizable metal or leather
vambraces represented on Khalchayan clay sculptures plate catches the eye in Khalchayan reliefs. The ocher
(Fig. 5. Pl. II, 4), cataphracts can be viewed as the yellow color that the armor has been painted with is
outcome of the interaction of military organizations and most likely for the gilt. Three rows of plates of larger
military hardware of various nationalities involved in the sizes are arranged in the lower part under the waist
orbit of ancient world military events. (Pugachenkova, belt (Pl. II, 3). Thus, we can say that the warrior’s torso
1971). It should be noted that these two archaeological was protected by an armored layer, fixed separately.
sites are located in Bactria. The Khalchayan was located One gets the impression that the bracers were
in northern Bactria in the middle of the Surkandarya also fixed separately and attached by a special loop
oasis in late 2 BC (Yuezhi migration period), and Ai or lacing. The shoulder protector can be judged
Khanum was located at the confluence of the Kokcha by the best-preserved sculpture, which shows the
and Amudarya (Oxus) rivers. shape of the armor (Fig. 5. Pl. II, 2). And one of
In addition, the torso of a warrior with a breastplate the most remarkable details is its high bell-shaped
covered in “cuirass armor” and divided by rectangular collar (Fig. 4).
Figure 5. Plate II. Fragments of armor from Khalchayan
Source: Abdullaev, 1995.
Figure 6. Bone plate with engraved composition
Source: Abdullaev, 2007.
The discoveries made in Sogdia’s territory and grounds to clarify some of the design features of
in Bactria’s neighboring north attest to the cervical plate armor. A notable feature of this armor is the
armor’s existence and widespread use. At the same plate’s form-fitting upper body, high armored collar,
time, they show that this portion of the Bactrian firmly tightened waist, and an incredibly wide hem,
protective armor, created to guard one of the body’s descending well below the knees, which allowed
most anatomically vulnerable areas, is a natural them to protect part of the horse’s croup (Fig. 6). The
component of Central Asian armor. This relates to connection points may be the most vulnerable, which
the discovery of bone plates in the Orlat necropolis may be why one of the riders impales his opponent
(region of Samarkand) with engravings of combat exactly at on those points.
scenes. (Pugachenkova, 1989: 122-154, fig.70, 71; Rivets, another kind of fastening, are shown as
Pugachenkova, 1987: 56- 65, figs. 57, 59; Abdullaev, dots in the middle of the plate. Judging by the pattern
1995b: 151-161; Ilyasov, Rusanov, 1997/1998: 107- and location of plates, we can say that the armored
159). Analysis of the armor on these images gives jacket, bracers, and greaves were separate parts that
Figure 7. Representation of an armored horseman
on the Saka coins Armor images on the coin findings
The images on coins are one of the important categories of sources on this issue. As a genre of official art, usually with a portrait of the ruler, the coins convey the character’s attire in a realistic manner with details. The closest analogy to early Saka coins is imprinted with the image of a heavily armed rider. These are coins of Vanones, Azes, and Azilises (Fig. 7), and on certain types of Vanones’ coins, the horse is depicted in a protective armor. The bump on the horse’s body surface suggests that the protective apparel is not only for the rider but also for the horse. We can attribute the images on the coins as a representation Source: Abdullaev, 1995. of cataphracts (Mitchiner, 1975a: types 681, 744-751, 769). could be collected and connected through special Iconographic analysis of the coins localized to hardware (hinges, hooks). One of these hooks was the northwest of Balkh (ancient Bactres) provides a discovery in burial no1 in Orlat necropolis and interesting information concerning the helmet’s represents an iron buckle with a long tongue at design. The representation of a ruler on these coins the end of which there was an opening for fixing gives an analogy not only for the helmet and neck (Pugachenkova, 1989Pugachenkova (1989). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). armor but also to the physical appearance of the A completely original type of helmet was personages. Representing the portrait, namely on the found in the Khalchayan archaeological site. It obverse of the coins, proves that the nobles and even was represented in Khalchayan sculpture on two royal warriors used this kind of armor. These silver images: the head of an elderly bearded warrior coins are close in weight to the Attic standard (closer with a broad face and a second personage with a to 4 grams). An elderly and Caucasoid type personage slightly elongated face and a beard. The helmet is is depicted in the profile to the right (Fig. 8). He preserved better on this fragment, including a part
of the neck protector/collar (Fig. 4). The helmet Figure 8. Portrait of Tanlismaidates on a silver coin
consists of a crown with a base in a broad band and a tight-fitting head with a small segmental visor. Under the helmet on his head, the warrior wore, very likely, a balaclava. A liner that is covering the ears absorbed the impact shocks during the battle,. This type of helmet, until recently, was not recorded on the monuments of fine art, and it is undeniable that they belong to the nomadic Source: Abdullaev 2012. warfare culture.
Figure 9. Fragment of wall painting with has a wedge-shaped beard, mustache, protruding representation of a warrior in a helmet and high
nose straight, wide shaped eyes, and the long form collar
of the eyebrows. Its look as a whole reminds one of the images of the Khalchayan findings. The Crown of the hat is decordated with pearls, and on the side, there is a symbol in the shape of a crescent with horns facing upwards and knobs on the ends and resting on a vertical rod. A high collar protects the neck of the personage. It is shown in the shape of elongated plates, on the center of which passes a horizontal row of rounded knobs, which may be rivets. The collar has a small extension in the upper part and, in its configuration, resembles the collars of knights of Orlat’s necropolis, in particular the vertical stripes. From the top of the helmet falls a plume. There is inscription on obvers of the coins in Greek letter. The name of the ruler TANΛΙCΜΙAΔΑΤΗC was carved on the coins circularly. The name is Iranian and has a composite form, with the last two words serving derivatives interpretation: ΜΙAΔΑΤΗC means “given by Mah (Moon-God in Iranian pantheon)”. ΤΑΝ means “body”, and ΛΙS probably means fortress, temple. In this case,
the name of the whole can be translated as “strong Source: Abdullaev, 1995.
body (the body as a fortress) given by (God)
Mah”,However, it is important to specify that this on the way of knights (cataphracts) on the Silk
definition is hypothetical and requires a special Road with direction to the Indian subcontinent.
philological analysis. But can we say that Tanlismaidates’ coins show us
Mitchiner’s historical interpretation of these an equestrian warrior, considering that it shows
coins seems very convincing. He associates them only a bust on a coin? Probably, yes, given that
with the mint of Tanlismaidates, one of the kings we see a lot in common with the characters of
of the Sakaraukes tribe. Chronologically, it is the Khalchayan’s sculptures and images on Orlat plates.
same period as the time of the reign of Parthian In all probability, we can add to the circle of such
king Orodes I (about 89-77 BC.). This implies images the fragment of the mural of Dalverzintepa
that Tanlismaidates coins could be of local issue (Belyaeva, 1978: 33-47; Abdullaev, 1995a: 154-155Abdullaev (1995a). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.),
(Alexandria Areia-Herat) and minted under the which bears a representation of a warrior in a helmet
suzerainty of Orodes. (Mitchiner, 1975b: 407). with a high armored collar (Fig. 9) and the head of
Thus, analyzing the coins with the image of a a horse also protected by plates. These fragments
knight in armor, we have identified one more point represent a similar image of a heavily armed rider.
Represented Battle Scenes the heads of the riders, there are helmets of the type
found in the third barrow in Altai. The horses have
Concerning the topic of battle in the nomad milieu cropped manes and saddles, but without the stirrups.
in antiquity, it would be logical to mention a well- Without going into detail on the riders’ armor,
known work here. It is a gold plate from the Siberian which have a lot in common with the compositions
collection of Peter I the Great (Fig. 10), which was of Khalchayan and Orlat, the semantic meaning of
published several times and represents a composition the plot should be emphasized.
with heavily armored riders (Artamonov, 1973: 154, Compositionally, the scene can be divided into
Fig. 192; Rudenko, 1960: 298, 153; Rudenko, 1962: three parts. First, the left part is represented by one
Fig. 29). Rudenko interprets the plot as the return rider, keeping parallel on a galloping horse, lifting the
of five riders with the corpses of two of their dead dead warrior. The middle part consists of three riders,
comrades or leaders after the fight. Ahead is a rider the closest of which is shown with a raised right hand,
with a horse through the saddle of which a hanging compressing a spear with which he strikes a mortal
corpse of a slain warrior’s head hangs. One of the blow from above into the back of the enemy. The spear
riders holds a sword. Meanwhile, the other rider pierces the horseman through and comes out of his
holds the horse’s reins and the corpse of the dead chest. A wide spearhead in the shape of an elongated
comrade. The procession closed with two riders, one leaf is shown up at an angle that does not correspond
of which held a battle axe and the other a bow. On to the physical reality. However, this is conventionality
Figure 10. Engraved composition on a gold plate with depiction of a battle scene
Source: State Hermitage Museum, n. d.
justified because to continue the line of the spear in military clashes with Wusun and Yuezhi, and the war
the “right direction” would hide the spear behind the between Xiongnu and Yuezhi. All of these historical
animal’s head, making the action incomprehensible. events could be represented in the works of fine arts.
Another warrior testifies to the inclined posture of All these peoples had a similar lifestyle according
the latter, almost dying. The last two figures are also to Chinese chronicles and Western literal history
shown in a combat position. The rider shown drawing (Abdullaev, 2005: 27-30; Abdullaev, 2007; Abdullaev,
the bow is closest to the viewer (the last on the right in 2007: 73-98).
the composition). Next to him in the background is a To these well-known works of ancient art, we
rider with a battle axe in his raised hand. could add the remarkable find of a carpet by Russian
archaeologists from Novosibirsk in Mongolia (Polosmak, 2010Polosmak (2010). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). The remnants of carpet fabric
If you follow these chronological contain a battle scene with a murdered body, and
calculations, the Sakaraukes some of the warriors are shown in plate-shaped
historically preceded Yuezhi and armor. The physical appearances of the personages
are in some sense “followers” are a lot like the heroes of Khalchayan.
and “heirs” of the Greco-Bactrian It should be noted that the image of the warrior in
cultural complex. armor that we studied above is reflected in popular
artifacts as terra cotta sculptures. I give here only
All of the above clarifies the meaning of the one example coming from layers of the post-Greco-
overall composition and interprets it not as a “The Bactrian period of the Kampyrtepa site in Southern
scene of the warriors’ return from the campaign” but Uzbekistan. Amongst Greek depictures from the
as the scene of persecution of one group of riders archaeological complex of Kampyrtepa present
by the other. The similarity between characters some samples of terra cotta of nomadic appearance.
can be interpreted as that they were from related It particularly concerns a bearded figure sitting on an
tribes. The battle scene is reminiscent of the omphalos shape throne (Abdullaev, 2007: 90, fig, 10Abdullaev (2007). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).
persecution we have already seen in the sculptural In the nomadic world in which, according to
complex of Khalchayan, where opponents differed Strabo, the main male occupation was military,
from each other not only by weapons but also by there is, very likely, a layer of professional warrior
appearances. Regarding the battle-equipped riders, knights who acted either as a mercenary force or
the composition of the bone plate of Orlat is similar raided the nearby towns and villages for plunder
to the scene on the Siberian collection’s gold plate. or receiving tributes. For example, according to
Most likely, these scenes have an epic character and the Strabo, the Sacae led a similar way of life,
may present an important event in the history of the “who raided like the Cimmerians”. They captured
peoples of Central Asia. We have several historical Bactriana and part of Armenia during one of these
episodes that appear in written sources, telling about raids, leaving the name Sacasene behind (Strabo,
civil wars of related tribes, including the confrontation XI, VIII, 3-4). The image of the knight, clad in metal
of Sakaraukes and Tochari (Pompeius Trogus, XLII), armor, is demonstrated on coins of Vanones, Azes,
the confederation of five Yabgu (principalities) of Azileses and other kings of Central Asian origin
Ta Yuezhi under the leadership of Kujula Kadphises, who later came to India (Mitchiner, 1976Mitchiner (1976). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).
Conclusion from the area on the other side of Iaksartes” and
were among those who overthrew the Greco-
Concluding this limited survey of selected images mainly Bactrian state (Strabo, XI, VIII, 2; Bernard, 1987;
from the archaeological layers, one can summarize nomad Bernard, Abdullaev, 1997; Abdullaev, 2007).
knights on the Central Asian sector of the Silk Road. The The discovery of iron armor plate fragments in
starting point for us is the Sogdian complex, including a circular grave at the Chirik-Rabat archaeological
the Orlat necropolis, demonstrating excellent images of site, which is associated with the Chirik-Rabat
the knights on the engraved composition on the bone culture of the lower Syrdarya, is noteworthy in this
plates. Besides Orlat burials, the Sogdian region possesses context. The building’s excavation yielded material
several other monuments that illustrate the image of a that was dated to the late 4th or early 3rd centuries
professional warrior, including early Sogdian coins. The BC (Tolstov, 1962: 148, Figs. 82, a, b; Itina, 1992Itina (1992). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).
series of coins with the portrait image of a ruler on the If you follow these chronological calculations, the
obverse and the figure of an archer on the reverse are also Sakaraukes historically preceded Yuezhi and are in some
close to the representations of Orlat compositions. sense “followers” and “heirs” of the Greco-Bactrian
It should be emphasized that the legend is somewhat cultural complex. The director of excavations, Belyaeva,
distorted, but the Greek letters on the coins are readable. claimed that mural fragments found in Dalverzintepa
The caucasoid physical type on these coins is reminiscent that depicted a warrior with a helmet, an armored
of the Khalchayan cycle of portraits, namely the group collar, and a horse head in protective armor belonged
of warriors in armor. One of the distinguishing features to the Pre-Kushan period. (Belyaeva, 1978: 38). Leaving
of these portraits is a long whisker, which is typical for the question of the absolute chronology of Sakaraukes
the early Sogdian coins. The other common sign on the open, as a working hypothesis, we accept 129 BC as the
reverse of Sogdian coins represents an archer in high collar terminus ante quem (the latest possible date) when the
protector shown on Khalchayan reliefs and Orlat plates Chinese diplomat Zhang Qian found Yuezhi remnants
(Abdullaev, 1995a: Figs. 7,8Abdullaev (1995a). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Finally, the asymmetrical on the banks of the river Guyshuy (Oxus-Amudarya).
bow configuration represented on the Sogdian coins is They settled north of the river and their power extended
clearly close to the form of bows in the Orlat composition. to the territory of the left bank. In this case, the terminus
Thus, relating Sogdia with Northern Bactria, post quem, respectively, refers to 145 BC, when one of
namely with Khalchayan, we can identify the the mainstays of the Greek government, a city known to
movement of cataphracts - the Central Asian knights. us under the name of Ai Khanum, collapsed.
Analysis of the coins of the ruler Tanlismaidates, Thus, the chronological period is limited from
located on the left bank of the Amudarya-Oxus 145 to 129 years BC in all the evidence, which can
area, allows us to associate it with the same circle be underlined from the widespread notion of the
of knightly aristocracy, reflected in the monuments “Saka-Yuezhi period” in the history of Central Asia.
of Sogdia (Orlat, Sogdian coins) and Northern Based largely on stratified works of art, I have tried to
Bactria (Khalchayan). Tanlismaidates’ coins give a show the movement of nomads from the East to the West.
reliable date chronologically (2nd century BC - 1st Of course, the conclusions are hypothetical and require
century BC). additional material. It is hoped that the systematic
It makes sense to associate cataphracts with the archaeological research throughout the Silk Road will
Saka tribes , who, in according to Strabo, “moved give researchers new material for resolving disputes.
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