Cooperation Between China and Eastern Mediterranean Countries in the Context of the Belt and Road Initiative: Opportunities and Challenges

Introduction epidemic are still the major crises facing China

in the Eastern Mediterranean region. Crisis is

FOR A LONG TIME, CHINA HAS PLACED expressed as “Wei ji” in Chinese. “Wei” means

its strategic focus on China’s surrounding areas, dangerous, and “Ji” means opportunity. “Wei ji”

and there is no specific official Chinese policy on is a sapiential word. It means where the danger is,

the Mediterranean. However, the BRI proposal there is an opportunity. It is a challenging task for

has highlighted the Mediterranean region’s China to seek opportunities in these crises.

geographical importance. This paper determines to conduct a strategic

From the data of the past nine years, China has examination of cooperation between China and

made many important achievements in building Eastern Mediterranean Countries through SWOT

BRI with Türkiye, Israel and other Eastern analysis. Often applied in a competitive business

Mediterranean countries. However, containment environment, there is utility in applying it geo-

from the United States, the turbulence of strategically to China’s BRI in the Mediterranean

the regional situation and the COVID-19 region.

Table 1. A geostrategic SWOT Analysis for China’s BRI in the Eastern Mediterranean region.

Source: Ye Zhangxu, 2023.

The Current Situation of and created more opportunities for common

Cooperation Between China and prosperity” (Xinhua News Agency, 2022Xinhua News Agency (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

Eastern Mediterranean Countries The Mediterranean Sea represents a highly

strategic intersection point between Asia, Africa,

Since China proposed the Belt and Road and Europe, which connects the Atlantic and

Initiative, it has received positive responses Indian Oceans. Adding to this is the fact that

from most countries worldwide. By the end of the Mediterranean Sea provides the shortest

July 2022, China signed the BRI cooperation route that connects the Far East to Europe and

documents with more than 150 countries and the Atlantic (Gürcan, 2021Gürcan (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). The Silk Road,

international organizations, with direct non- which started during the Han Dynasty in China,

financial investment in countries along the brought Chinese silk and porcelain westward

Belt and Road exceeding $140 billion and trade through the Western Region and the South

volume with these countries of $12 trillion. In China Sea to the Eastern Mediterranean region,

addition, there are 94 shipping routes named from where they were sold to Europe and other

after “Silk Road Maritime”, reaching 108 ports regions. Today, with the development of ocean

in 31 countries (Belt and Road Portal, 2022Belt and Road Portal (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). shipping, the Mediterranean Sea remains one of

As President Xi Jinping said at the Second Belt the busiest and most important sea lanes in the

and Road Forum for International Cooperation, world.

“From the Eurasian continent to Africa, First of all, from the perspective of “One Road”,

the Americas and Oceania, Belt and Road under the trend of China’s continuous emphasis

cooperation has opened up new space for global on maritime construction, the key construction

economic growth, produced new platforms for direction of the “Maritime Silk Road” is from

international trade and investment and offered China’s eastern coastal ports to the Indian Ocean

new ways for improving global economic via the South China Sea and the Malacca Strait,

governance. Indeed, this initiative has helped and then from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean

improve people’s lives in countries involved Sea via the Suez Canal. By radiating from the

Eastern Mediterranean, one could argue that it is Policy Coordination

possible to communicate with the Arab Islamic

world to the east, the African continent to the The Belt and Road Initiative has won positive

south by Egypt, the developed EU economic responses from numerous countries and

sphere to the west, and the Black Sea to the north international organizations, becoming a high-

by the Bosporus Strait of Türkiye. profile international cooperation platform. The

Secondly, from the perspective of “One cooperation documents signed by China and

Belt”, although there are several routes of the a wide range of countries to build BRI cover

“Silk Road Economic Belt”, the key route is still investment, trade, science and technology,

consistent with the direction of the ancient Silk humanities and other fields.

Road, that is, from the western region of China At the national level, the major countries

through Central Asia to the Persian Gulf and in the Eastern Mediterranean region (Türkiye,

the Mediterranean Sea. Thus, the intersection Syria, Egypt, Libya, Greece, and Cyprus), except

of the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st- for Israel, have signed cooperation agreements

Century Maritime Silk Road in the Eastern with the Chinese government. Although Israel

Mediterranean highlights the importance of the has not signed a cooperation document directly

geostrategic location of this region. with China, it is also actively dovetailing with

In particular, Türkiye and China’s the “Belt and Road” construction. Additionally,

geographical location and conformation offer Israel is a founding member of the Asian

potential advantages for improving maritime Infrastructure Investment Bank, along with

cooperation along Maritime Silk Road (Gürcan, Türkiye and Egypt.

2021). As Turkish President Recep Tayyip At the regional level, the Belt and Road

Erdogan said during his meeting with President Initiative effectively fits with Türkiye’s Middle

Xi Jinping on the sidelines of the SCO Summit, Corridor initiative, the European Union’s EU-

“Türkiye’s ‘Middle Corridor’ plan and the Belt Asia connectivity strategy, and other regional

and Road Initiative, it is hoped that intensified development plans. In addition, China’s Belt

efforts can be made to build synergy between the and Road Forum for International Cooperation

development strategies of the two countries to in 2017 and 2019 are the highest-profile

boost common development and rejuvenation” international cooperation platform under the

(Xinhua News Agency, 2022Xinhua News Agency (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Belt and Road framework.

The year 2022 marks the ninth anniversary

of the BRI. In the past nine years, China has Infrastructure Connectivity

turned the BRI from ideas into actions and

vision into reality. The outcomes between China Infrastructure connectivity is also a high

and the countries along the route have been priority on the BRI agenda. Over the past nine

fruitful, especially in the following five aspects: years, the construction of efficient and smooth

policy coordination, infrastructure connectivity, international corridors has been accelerated

unimpeded trade, financial integration, and with the efforts of countries along the routes.

closer people-to-people ties. In terms of railways, the China-Europe Railway

Express, as an effective carrier of interoperability and China-Israel Changzhou Innovation Park,

and mutual interconnection between China and have also played an active role in undertaking

the countries along the BRI, further highlights cooperation between Chinese and foreign en-

the role of logistics in connecting the countries terprises, employing local people and driving

along the BRI. Up to July 2022, the China-Europe the economic development of the host country

Railway Express has planned 82 routes that (HANFY Solar, 2020; SETC, 2017; China Daily,

connect 200 cities in 24 European countries (He, 2022He (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

2022).

In the context of the Russia-Ukraine confli- Financial Integration

ct, the southern route of the China-Europe tra-

in from China to Türkiye via Central Asia and Financial integration is an important pillar of the

then to Europe is developing rapidly. In terms of Belt and Road Initiative. Up to July 2022, China

ports, China has built and invested in numerous has made bilateral currency swap arrangements

overseas ports, helping host countries develop with more than 20 BRI countries and Renmin-

port industries and hinterland economies and bi clearing arrangements with 10 BRI countries.

realizing the development of large-scale and mo- One representative cross-border cooperation

dernized ports. Among them, the representative project is the establishment of ICBC Türkiye in

projects in the Eastern Mediterranean region are 2015 based on the acquisition of shares of Türki-

the Ashdod South Port Project in Israel, Istanbul ye’s Tekstilbank by ICBC. In 2022, ICBC Türkiye

Port of Kuymak in Türkiye, Piraeus Port in Gre- was awarded “Best Corporate Bank” and “Fastest

ece, and Damietta International Container Ter- Growing Corporate Bank” this year (Hua, 2022Hua (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

minal in Egypt (PortSEurope, 2020; China Daily, In addition, to provide better financing support

2017; Reuters, 2021). to the countries along the BRI to achieve con-

nectivity, the Asian Infrastructure Investment

Unimpeded Trade Bank and the Silk Road Fund have received ex-

tensive support from countries along the route.

The efforts invested in the initiative have libe- Headquartered in Beijing, the AIIB is another

ralized and facilitated trade and investment in locomotive of economic cooperation as part of

the participating countries and regions. Trade in post-hegemonic multipolarity in Eurasia (Gür-

services between China and other BRI countries can, 2020). Today, the number of AIIB members

have seen steady progress. China has become has increased from 57 in 2015 to 105, covering

the largest trading partner of 25 countries along almost all countries in the Eastern Mediterrane-

the Belt and Road, including Türkiye, Syria and an (The Economic Times, 2022The Economic Times (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

Egypt in the Eastern Mediterranean region. At

the same time, Greece and Cyprus are China’s Closer People-to-People Ties

largest trading partners outside the EU. Several

cooperation parks, such as China-Türkiye Pho- In recent years, the BRI countries have conducted

tovoltaic Industrial Park, China-Egypt TEDA diplomatic activities and cultural exchanges in

Suez Economic and Trade Cooperation Zone wide fields, enhancing mutual understanding

Map of the BRI Economic Corridors. (Geopolitical Intelligence Services, 2019Geopolitical Intelligence Services (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)

and recognition and laying a solid cultural prevention materials and vaccines to all countries

foundation for furthering the initiative. in the Eastern Mediterranean region. China is

Firstly, cultural exchanges between China also actively helping Syria and Libya to promote

and countries along the route take various post-war reconstruction through aid materials

forms. China, CEE countries, Türkiye, Greece, (Global Times, 2022Global Times (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

Egypt, and South Africa have hosted activities

to celebrate the cultures of BRI countries in Opportunities for China and Eastern

different years and developed about a dozen Mediterranean Countries’ Cooperation

cultural exchange brands such as the “Silk Road

Tour” and “Chinese/African Cultures in Focus”. Notably, China’s relations with the Mediterranean

countries are framed by its official policy of non- China also promotes the understanding of the interference in political affairs, in contrast to the Chinese language and culture by people from all policies of historical Western partners (Abdel & over the world through the Confucius Institute Jacobs, 2020Abdel & over the world through the Confucius Institute Jacobs (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). This has laid a stable foundation

program. for China to promote the joint construction of

Secondly, China has also joined hands with BRI with Mediterranean countries. Specifically,

countries along the route to fight the COVID-19 China maintains good relations with all the

epidemic. As of the end of 2021, China major countries in this region, which can be seen

has provided multiple batches of epidemic mainly in the following aspects.

Agreement signing of strategic cooperation between China-Israel ChangZhou Innovation Park and Guangdong Technion – Israel Institute of Technology. (Guangdong Technion, 2022Guangdong Technion (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)

Sino-Israeli Relations with China until January 24, 1992 (Xiao, 2016Xiao (2016). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). After

then, China and Israel achieved fruitful cooperation in

As a nation with splendid culture, a long history infrastructure construction, engineering contracting

and many disasters, the Jewish people have had a and high-tech industries (Bi, 2018Bi (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). But since the

very strong suffering consciousness since Israel was dramatic changes in the Middle East in 2011, Israel’s

established last century. Being a direct participant “Look East” policy and China’s BRI have gone hand in

in the Palestinian-Israeli conflict and experiencing hand, driving a breakthrough and transformation in

numerous Middle East wars, Israel has seized every relations between the two countries.

opportunity to develop its national strength. Israel Firstly, China and Israel have a high degree

is not dominant in land area, population size and of mutual political trust and frequent high-level

natural resources, yet it is a “technological power” diplomatic interactions. In 2017, the then-Israeli

and “innovative power” that has turned itself into Transportation Minister Katz said in an interview

a world leader in high-tech development. It is no with Chinese journalists, “Israel is willing to take an

surprise that China has established the “Innovative active part in the OBOR plan and become one of its

Comprehensive Partnership” with Israel, which is also crossroads” (GLOBES, 2018GLOBES (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Israeli Prime Minister

the only such kind of relationship between China and Benjamin Netanyahu visited China twice, in 2013

other countries (Knowledge at Wharton Staff, 2015Knowledge at Wharton Staff (2015). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). and 2017, and signed cooperation agreements with

The diplomatic relations between China and Israel China. Data show that Israel has increased its budget

have undergone a long, tortuous and complicated for China-related staffing in the two years following

process. Although Israel was the first country in the the BRI. The year 2022 marks the 30th anniversary

Middle East to recognize the People’s Republic of of establishing diplomatic relations between China

China, it was the last to establish diplomatic relations and Israel. President Xi Jinping exchanged messages

with Israeli President Isaac Herzog, saying that he precious historical friendship became a bond of

hopes to work with Herzog and take the anniversary friendship and exchange between China and Israel.

as an opportunity to strengthen political mutual From the exchange of international students in

trust, deepen mutually beneficial cooperation, 1993 to the establishment of Confucius Institutes in

expand people-to-people exchanges and promote the Israeli universities and Hebrew language programs

steady development of the two countries’ innovative in Chinese universities in 2007, the two sides have

comprehensive partnership (Xinhua News Agency, continued to promote in-depth cooperation in the

2022). field of education. In addition, China and Israel have

formed 24 pairs of friendship cities and provinces and have held many large-scale cultural exchange

According to Chinese statistics, activities.

bilateral trade increased from about Overall, the complementary nature of the two

countries is clear. For China, Tel Aviv’s deep ties with

$50 million when diplomatic relations the US and the EU can help China expand its ties in

were established in 1992 to $22.8 the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East. And

billion by 2021. for Israel, Sino-Israeli ties can enhance Israel’s role in

trade between Asia and Europe (Harutyunyan, 2020Harutyunyan (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

Secondly, China-Israel economic and trade More importantly, Israel also hopes to use the BRI to

exchanges are widely diversified, and science and advance its relations with Arab countries, thus further

technology innovation cooperation continues to changing its development and security in the Middle

make new developments. According to Chinese East.

statistics, bilateral trade increased from about $50

million when diplomatic relations were established Sino-Turkish Relations

in 1992 to $22.8 billion by 2021. In terms of science

and technology cooperation, China and Israel Although geographically distant, China and

formally established the “Comprehensive Partnership Türkiye, located at the eastern and western ends of

for Innovation” in 2017. China has a huge market the Asian continent, have maintained close relations

and strong industrial capacities. Israeli technology throughout their history (Xiao, 2011Xiao (2011). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Both countries

could easily be industrialized in China. In addition, have a glorious history and a splendid civilization,

as an Eastern Mediterranean coastal country, Israel’s and the establishment of diplomatic relations

port construction coincides with the development between China and Türkiye in 1971 has led to a new

of infrastructure projects in the BRI. In 2015, the stage of relations between the two countries. Since

Shanghai International Port Group (SIPG) won the new century, as the comprehensive strength

the tender to build and operate the Haifa Bayport of both countries has been increasing, China and

Terminal, which is of great significance to the Türkiye have paid more and more attention to

construction of the “Maritime Silk Road” (ASIA developing relations. For China, Türkiye is an

TIMES, 2022). important regional power that connects Europe,

Finally, China and Israel have a long history of Asia and Africa, and it also holds the Bosphorus and

cultural exchanges with rich and diverse content. the Dardanelles. The famous strategist Zbigniew

During World War II, Shanghai and other places Brzezinski described it as a pivotal country in the

received tens of thousands of Jewish refugees. This geostrategy of Eurasia (Brzezinski, 1997Brzezinski (1997). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

President Xi Jinping meets with President Recep Tayyip Erdogan at in Samarkand, Uzbekistan (September 16, 2022September 16 (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). (Xinhua, 2022Xinhua News Agency (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)

Since the Justice and Development Party (AK which is a strategic fit for the two sides to build BRI

Party) came to power in 2002, Türkiye has made (Reuters, 2022Reuters (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

remarkable economic and social development As two developing regional powers, China and

achievements. The attempted military coup in Türkiye are looking to the future. They want to play

2016 significantly impacted the political situation a role in the international arena commensurate with

in Türkiye (Yang, 2020Yang (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). At the same time, in the their political, economic and military power. Since

face of the changing international situation and 2013, when China proposed the BRI, it has been of

the rise of China and the Asia-Pacific region, the interest to all sectors in Türkiye. In October 2010,

Erdogan government has also actively adjusted its China and Türkiye announced establishing and

foreign policy and shown a strong interest in the developing strategic cooperation to enhance the level

BRI proposed by China. At the recent Shanghai of friendship and cooperation in various fields. By

Cooperation Organization (SCO) summit in 2015, when President Erdogan met with Xi Jinping

Samarkand, President Erdogan, as a special guest, on the sidelines of the G20 Summit, he expressed

also expressed his willingness to join the SCO, Türkiye’s willingness to participate in cooperation

within the framework of the BRI actively. After the Road”, Türkiye is keen to occupy a more prominent

meeting, the two sides also signed a memorandum position in the construction of the BRI by virtue

of understanding to promote the construction of of its advantages of being surrounded by the sea

“B&R” (The Official Website of Turkish Presidency, on three sides, having many ports and connecting

2015). Europe and Asia (Zou, 2018Zou (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). A representative

project of Sino-Turkish cooperation in ports is the acquisition of a 65% stake in Türkiye’s 3rd largest container terminal, Kumport, by China Merchants

The construction of high-speed International Technology Co., Ltd. (CMIT) in 2015.

railroads and ports will strengthen The construction of high-speed railroads and ports

Türkiye’s position as a “pivotal will strengthen Türkiye’s position as a “pivotal

state”, which Erdogan has highly state”, which Erdogan has highly praised as historic

praised as historic projects. projects (Li, 2017Li (2017). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

In addition, the construction of BRI also promotes in-depth cooperation between China and

China and Türkiye both put the promotion of Türkiye at the security level. For many years, both

bilateral strategic and economic interests in the China and Türkiye have been seriously endangered

first place, which is a realistic motivation for the by terrorism, and Türkiye is also on the front line

development of bilateral relations between the two of the Middle East turmoil. Therefore, strengthening

countries in the new situation. In terms of economic counter-terrorism cooperation is, on the one hand,

and trade cooperation, bilateral trade between conducive to maintaining regional security and

China and Türkiye reached $34.2 billion in 2021, stability and, on the other hand, can provide a stable

up 42.2% year-on-year, and China has remained external environment for cooperation between the

Türkiye’s top trading partner for ten consecutive two sides in various fields. In August 2017, Chinese

years since 2011(MFA of PRC, 2022MFA of PRC (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). In terms of Foreign Minister Wang Yi signed a counter-terrorism

infrastructure construction, the two sides have cooperation agreement with Turkish Foreign

been steadily promoting large-scale projects such Minister Çavusoğlu following foreign minister-level

as railroads and ports under the framework of BRI. talks in Beijing. During Erdogan’s visit to China in

Türkiye’s “Middle Corridor” plan aims to strengthen 2019, he said, “Türkiye is firmly against extremism

economic cooperation between Asia and Europe, and is willing to enhance political mutual trust

which has a high strategic fit with the construction and strengthen security cooperation with China”

of BRI. (CGTN, 2019CGTN (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). It is worth mentioning that in 2011,

From the perspective of the Overland Silk China used Istanbul, Türkiye, as a transit point for

Road, opening the Ankara-Istanbul high-speed the evacuation of Chinese citizens back from Libya.

railway project in 2014 by a Chinese company is a China and Türkiye have their own “Chinese

milestone for both sides in terms of infrastructure Dream” and “Turkish Dream”, respectively, and

connectivity. Currently, the fastest China-European despite some conflicts in the past, they still have

Railway Express from Xi’an, China, can reach good prospects for cooperation. By strengthening

Istanbul in about two weeks, promoting more communication, setting aside disputes and finding

convenient overland trade between China and common interests, the two countries can avoid risks

Türkiye. From the perspective of the “Maritime Silk in concrete cooperation.

Sino-Greek Relations and play an important role in guiding them to

develop practical cooperation in various fields

Both China and Greece are the birthplaces (SHINE, 2022SHINE (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

of world civilizations, and both have a long In recent years, economic and trade

history, which has shaped the wisdom of their cooperation between China and Greece has

dealings in reality (Shi & You, 2020Shi & You (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). China and also progressed well. Bilateral trade volume has

Greece have a good foundation for cooperation. jumped from less than $100 million in the early

Since the BRI was launched in 2013, under the 1990s to $12.15 billion in 2021. Sino-Greek

strategic leadership of the top echelons of China economic and trade cooperation in the BRI

and Greece, mutual political trust has been construction of successful cooperation in the

deepened, economic and trade relations have flagship project is COSCO Group’s investment

become closer, and cooperation in various fields in the Greek port of Piraeus (Financial Times,

has gradually increased. 2016). The purchase of the port laid the

groundwork for China to transform it into a major hub in the Mediterranean. Large

In recent years, economic and trade companies like Huawei, ZTE, Samsung, HP, and

cooperation between China and Sony already use the port to enter the European

market. The Piraeus Port project has not only Greece has increased. Bilateral made substantial contributions to the economic

trade volume has jumped from development of Greece but also created a large

less than $100 million in the early number of local jobs. More broadly, as a member

1990s to $12.15 billion in 2021. of the EU and the eurozone, Greece offers China

a gateway to Northern, Eastern, and Western Europe as well as the highly promising market

More than 2,000 years ago, the ancient Silk of southeast Europe and the Black Sea (Chaziza,

Road linked the two ancient civilizations of China 2018).

and Greece. Greece, located at the important The year 2022 marks the 50th anniversary of

intersection of the Land and Sea Silk Road, is diplomatic relations between China and Greece,

both a natural partner for the construction and China and Greece should take this as an

of the Belt and Road and the first developed opportunity to promote deeper cooperation in

European country to sign a Memorandum of various fields under the framework of BRI. As

Understanding with China on cooperation in Wang Yi said to Greek Foreign Minister Nikos

the construction of the BRI. In 2014, Chinese Dendias on the phone, “The amicable relations

Premier Li Keqiang visited Greece to promote between China and Greece over the past 50 years

cooperation in trade and investment between are a true reflection of mutual understanding

the two countries. In 2019, Xi Jinping and Greek and affinity between ancient civilizations, and a

President Pavlopoulos exchanged visits and vivid epitome of the trend of the times for peace,

reached several agreements on BRI cooperation. development and win-win cooperation, setting

Maintaining regular interaction between the a good example for the development of relations

top leaders of China and Greece will not only between China and European countries”

deepen their friendship but also help deepen (Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in

mutual political trust between the two countries the Hellenic Republic, 2022).

Egypt's president inaugurates trial run of China-made LRT, on July 3, 2022. (Egyptian Presidency, 2022Egyptian Presidency (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)

Sino-Egyptian Relations China and Egypt have suffered from the invasion

of Western colonizers together. After national

The friendly relations between the two ancient independence, they encountered many similar

civilizations have a long history, and the Chinese difficulties, giving rise to the strategic sentiment

and Egyptian people shared the hardships during of mutual support and common prosperity. In

the national liberation struggle in the 20th century, particular, at the Bandung Conference in 1955,

which laid a solid historical foundation for the Premier Zhou Enlai and Nasser advocated the

establishment of diplomatic relations between the “Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence”. They

new China and Egypt in 1956 (Yu, 2016Yu (2016). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Egypt’s jointly forged the spirit of Bandung, which raised

unique historical identity and geographic location the voice of the third world during the Cold War

make it one of the most influential countries in the and enhanced the status and reputation of the two

Middle East and Eastern Mediterranean region and countries in the international arena. Since entering

an important hub for the construction of the BRI. the 21st century, from establishing the “China-

For a long time, China and Egypt have had a strong Africa Cooperation Forum” in 2000 to establishing

foundation of strategic cooperation, close economic a comprehensive strategic partnership between

contacts and frequent cultural exchanges. the two sides in 2014, China-Egypt relations have

Firstly, good political relations lay a solid withstood the stormy changes in the international

foundation for cooperation. In modern times, situation and kept moving forward.

Secondly, China-Egypt trade and economic States and the West. Second, China’s peaceful rise

exchanges have grown steadily in recent years. In has caused the United States to be on high alert

2012, China surpassed the United States to become since the beginning of this century, and the Obama

Egypt’s largest trading partner and the largest source administration to the current Biden administration

of imports. The Suez Canal in Egypt is an important have tried their best to contain China’s development.

route for constructing the “21st Century Maritime Third, the BRI proposed by China is deeply

Silk Road”, the most convenient route for China’s integrated into regional development in the context

maritime trade cooperation with Europe and Africa. of globalization and is also deeply influenced by the

In addition, the China-Egypt Suez Economic and regional situation (Gürcan, 2021Gürcan (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

Trade Cooperation Zone, established in 2008, is the As a key region in constructing the BRI, the

second batch of national-level overseas economic Eastern Mediterranean connects three continents,

and trade cooperation zones approved by the Europe, Asia and Africa, and has great geo-

Chinese government. During President Xi Jinping’s economic significance in promoting regional

visit to Egypt in January 2016, he inaugurated the economic cooperation. However, the imbalance of

cooperation park together with President Abdel regional economic development, the instability of

Fattah al Sisi (Wang, 2017Wang (2017). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). the regional situation and the strategic game of the

Finally, China and Egypt have many civilizational extra-territorial powers are the real problems that

commonalities in their long history, and both sides need to be faced in constructing the BRI.

have various and rich forms of cultural exchanges. Firstly, the game of major powers is intensifying in

The Chinese government attaches great importance the East Mediterranean region. Although the United

to the dialogue of civilizations with Egypt and has States shifted its strategic focus to the Asia-Pacific

opened embassy cultural offices and cultural centers region since the Obama administration, it does not

in Egypt, and has now opened four Confucius intend to withdraw from its commitments in this

Institutes in Egypt. In addition, the China-Arab region completely. For the US, the rise of emerging

Forum and the China-Africa Forum are important countries represented by China has threatened

platforms for the contact between China and Egypt its “global hegemony”. Therefore, the US tries its

and countries in the wider Arab world. best to keep the regional powers in check, striving

to prevent any single local actor from becoming

Threats and Challenges of BRI dominant (Yegin, 2022Yegin (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). It is admitted that the US

Construction in the Eastern Mediterranean and its alliance system can still play a somewhat

dominant role in global and regional affairs. For

The BRI is a landmark initiative for the revival example, the U.S.-China trade war launched during

of China and the rise of China. It is not only an the Trump administration continued into the Biden

extension of the commercial road but also an administration and has intensified in the technology

extension of the border of national interests and sector. This will seriously impact China’s economic

security (Chu & Gao, 2015Chu & Gao (2015). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Since China launched cooperation with countries along the route.

the Belt and Road Initiative in 2013, it has aroused A typical example is Israel. Western forces

many misinterpretations for the following reasons. have argued that China’s port construction in the

First, China’s long-standing reform and opening- Eastern Mediterranean challenges US maritime

up policy still have not changed the suspicion dominance and pressured Israel to revisit its port

of capitalist countries represented by the United agreement with China’s SIPG because it threatens

the safe navigation of the Sixth Fleet. China’s seaport 2022 has worsened the regional situation again and

investment projects in the Mediterranean exhibit further led to a worldwide energy and food crisis.

distinctive commercial features without involving Russia and the Middle East have long been China’s

any military seaports. Another example is Greece. most important sources of energy and occupy a

China’s cooperation treaty with Greece alone has key position in China’s energy security system.

deepened the EU’s perception that China’s actions This has also led China to face problems in energy

are aimed at undermining EU economic integration. imports, such as over-concentration of import

For instance, the EU heavyweights perceive China regions and over-reliance on maritime transport

as a potential order disrupter and a formidable rival routes, which the volatile situation in the region will

with an attempt to expand its geo-economic and accentuate. Therefore, China hopes to advocate the

geo-political outreach towards the Mediterranean concept of “development for security” through the

Sea and reshape the existing norms and order in the construction of the “Belt and Road” and promote the

region. establishment of a mutually beneficial community

of energy interests in the Middle East by adhering to the strategy of non-alignment and non-selection

As the intersection of Europe and of sides.

Thirdly, economic recovery and development Asia, the Eastern Mediterranean under the impact of the pandemic epidemic have

has a very important strategic role become major issues facing the world. The sudden

in constructing the BRI. outbreak of COVID-19 swept almost the entire

world, and countries in the Eastern Mediterranean

Secondly, the unstable regional situation and region were not spared. China is also experiencing

frequent internal crises of the countries in the region increasing downward pressure on its economic

brought many security challenges to the BRI. Due to development due to the epidemic, with GDP at only

historical and practical reasons, uneven economic 2.5% in the first half of 2022, the smallest half-year

development, religious conflicts and ethnic conflicts economic growth since the reform and opening up.

have long plagued the regional development of the This made the international economic environment

East Mediterranean. In 2011, the Arab Spring largely facing the BRI construction not optimistic.

overturned the landscape of the Middle East region, Specifically, the decline in bilateral trade, slow

leading to the outbreak of regional conflicts and progress in production capacity cooperation, and

hotspots and the persistence of unresolved issues stagnation in cross-border tourism in the countries

(Zou, 2018Zou (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). For example, on April 14, 2018, without along the route.

a thorough investigation of the suspected chemical At present, with the increase in vaccination rate

attack in Eastern Ghouta, Syria, the United States, and the change of policies in the countries along the

together with Britain and France, launched more route, various cooperation between China and the

than 100 missiles at Syrian facilities, complicating countries along the route is gradually resumed. The

the situation in Syria and the Middle East and COVID-19 outbreak shows that the primary task

causing great damage to the peaceful environment of quality cooperative development with countries

needed for the construction of the Belt and Road along the route is to improve the resilience of the

(The International Rescue Committee, 2018The International Rescue Committee (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). countries along the route and enhance their ability

The Russia-Ukraine conflict that erupted in early to survive, not just develop (Zhang, 2021Zhang (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).

Conclusion mode is also constantly adjusted. However,

no matter how it is adjusted, the Chinese

The Belt and Road Initiative is an international government has always emphasized the need

platform for China to deepen reform and to promote the BRI construction with high

opening up under new historical conditions quality, balance various conflicts, coordinate

and promote mutual benefit and a win-win resources from all sides, and integrate

situation. At one end is the highly dynamic development and security. Undoubtedly, as

Asian economic circle, and at the other is time moves on, Belt and Road cooperation

the developed European economic circle. will show greater vitality and creativity. In the

As the intersection of Europe and Asia, the post-epidemic era, China and countries in the

Eastern Mediterranean has a very important Eastern Mediterranean region should stand on

strategic role in constructing the BRI. There a strategic and developmental level and deepen

is not only Türkiye with its multiple identities their understanding of each other in a mutually

but also countries such as Greece and Egypt beneficial manner.

with close ties to Europe and Africa. From a practical point of view, China’s strengthening

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