Introduction both endogenous and exogenous, and both internal
and external with complex contexts.
THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN, CONSISTING The above conflicts were not created by China,
of Türkiye, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Palestine a newcomer. However, Beijing is a stakeholder and
and Egypt, is trapped with prolonged and thorny an important player in the Eastern Mediterranean
issues related to security dilemmas and economic conflict resolution because it is the second-largest
slowdowns, such as the decade-long Syrian crisis, trading partner of the League of Arab States and
the four-decade Lebanese political discords and the third-largest trading partner of Türkiye and
the seven-decade Palestine-Israeli conflict. In Israel, respectively. Located at the cross-road of
recent years, the discovery of gas resources in the Belt and the Road, the Eastern Mediterranean
the Eastern Mediterranean has added a new secures a predominant position in China’s Middle
layer of complexity to the region already marred Eastern and Mediterranean policy.
with decades-old conflicts. Amid increasingly In 2013, Chinese President Xi Jinping launched
competitive gas markets, the East Mediterranean the Belt and Road Initiative. In 2021, President Xi
Gas Forum (EMGF) offers a platform to coordinate put forward the Global Development Initiate in the
efforts among the various players in the region United Nations and in 2022, President Xi raised
to lower costs and improve regional integration. the Global Security Initiative. These initiatives are
However, Türkiye and Libya are excluded from more than economic and development initiatives.
the Forum, causing escalating rivalry (Natural Indeed, they are economic means for security in
Resource Governance Institute, 2021). The Eastern the Eastern Mediterranean and the developing
Mediterranean interwoven traditional and non- world. This is a China-styled peace initiative of
traditional conflicts are both local and international, “developmental peace”.
“Developmental peace” is an important Middle East. The political systems of the Middle
proposition of China in its participation in the East are diverse, and their ideological divides are
security governance in the Middle East by economic huge, which are hard for conflicting parties to
measures. In his speech made at the headquarters compromise. However, development is the common
of the League of Arab States in Cairo in 2016, interest and universal value of all conflicting parties.
President Xi Jinping formulated the assumption Thus, it is easier to find a developmental solution to
of “developmental peace”: “The key to overcoming the political predicament step by step.
difficulties is to accelerate development. Turmoil What is China’s “developmental peace”
in the Middle East stems from the lack of hypothesis? What are the differences and
development, and the ultimate solution will depend similarities between this initiative and Western
on development, which bears on everyone’s well- peace initiatives?
being and dignity” (Xi, 2016Xi (2016). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). According to his Indeed, existing literature has shed light on
remark, states may achieve economic development the conditions and advantages of implementing
and social stability without changing their political “developmental peace” in the Middle East, Africa
system. and other regions. Wang Xuejun, a Chinese
expert on African studies, stresses that China’s “development first” policy determines its approach
Development is the common to peace and security as “developmental peace,”
interest and universal value of all which is different from the liberal peace idea
conflicting parties. Thus, it is easier based on Western countries’ experience (Wang,
to find a developmental solution to 2018: 67-82). In the area of UN peacekeeping,
the political predicament step by Richard Gueli and Sybert Liebenberg argue that
step. the concept of “developmental peace missions”
aims to challenge the traditional view that short-
Unlike the western liberalists’ assumption of term military security is a necessary precondition
the Middle Eastern conflict resolution, which for long-term development. They offer a first cut at
highlights that “democratic deficit” is the root substantiating this claim by exploring how initial
cause of regime failure, China emphasizes material civilian reconstruction efforts can enhance military
factors of conflicts. The “development deficit” stems peacekeeping and create the momentum needed for
from the imbalance of development and income successful transitions” (Gueli & Liebenberg, 2007:
distribution brought about by globalization, Chapter 5).
resulting in the widening gap between the rich and Arguably, there have been more empirical than
the poor, insufficient resilience to economic and theoretical studies and more macro-level than
financial risks, and the intensification of global micro-level studies concerning the topic in question.
energy and food security problems (Wang & Han, There is still a shortage of detailed clarification of
2022: 10). Based on its experience of the Reform and the concept and connotation of “developmental
Opening-up since the late 1970s, China underlines peace”. Moreover, relevant theoretical and case
that “development deficit” is the root cause of the studies of China’s “developmental peace” moves
upheaval in the Eastern Mediterranean and the in the Eastern Mediterranean are insufficient.
Therefore, this article starts with the connotation of derive from dictatorship and “democracy
“developmental peace” and attempts to understand deficit”, while the legal system in democracies
the internal dynamics and external roadmaps means there is a whole set of beliefs which
for China to put forward the peace initiative of prevent military conflicts in advance (Owen,
“developmental peace” in the context of China’s 1994: 87-125). The democratic peace theory
diplomacy towards the Eastern Mediterranean. states that countries with liberal democratic
forms of government are less likely to go to war
Democracy vis-à-vis Development: China’s with one another than those with other forms of
“Developmental Peace” Proposal government. Proponents of the theory draw on
the writings of German philosopher Immanuel
In the post-Cold War era, peace and development Kant and, more recently, US President Woodrow
remain the two themes of the world, the former Wilson, who, in his 1917 World War I message to
being the foundation of the latter and the latter the Congress, stated, “The world must be made safe
driving force of the former. In its comprehensive for democracy” (Longley, 2022Longley (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).
cooperation between China on one side and The second doctrine is characterized by
African, Arab and Latin American countries materialism. It advocates “developmental peace”.
on the other side, “developmental peace” is That is, conflicts primarily derive from scarcity of
becoming an important diplomatic concept material wealth, and “development deficit” is the
because peace and development have been a main cause of conflicts. “Developmental peace”
significant objective for the cooperation between implies that the dividend brought about by
China and other developing countries. In May development can benefit the whole community
2017, when addressing the First Belt and Road and help promote political stability and resolution
Forum for International Cooperation, President of social contradictions and regional conflicts,
Xi Jinping pointed out that peace deficit, turning the economic dividend produced by
development deficit and governance deficit development into a security dividend at both the
are grave challenges to humankind and peace. national and regional levels (Sun & Zhang, 2019:
Development and governance have become the 116).
targets of Chinese diplomacy in the new era. As Table 1 shows, “developmental peace”
Facing up to the main hot issues of the world in includes an open hypothesis: compared with
the 21st century, the doctrine of “developmental democratic governance, economic governance
peace” is of theoretical and practical significance has less risk but better effect. Under the
regarding how to effectively alleviate regional precondition of domestic political and social
conflicts and realize permanent peace and stability, whatever political institution is chosen,
common development. it can achieve peace as long as it is capable
So far, there are at least two competing of pursuing development with economic
doctrines concerning the root cause and construction at the center and it can drive
solutions to international conflicts. The first economic growth through state-dominated
doctrine is characterized by western liberalism. investment (as well as foreign investment) (He,
It advocates “democratic peace”. That is, conflicts 2017: 25-26).
2021. Its GDP per capita rose from $6,300 to problems. More peaceful efforts should be made
more than $12,000, forming the world’s largest to create conditions for development. With more
middle-income group with more than 400 developmental cooperation activating peace,
million people, and nearly 100 million rural poor development and peace will form a cycle of mutual
people have been lifted out of poverty. To build coordination and promotion. Therefore, more
a moderately prosperous society in all respects, efforts should be made to explore a governance
China’s economic, scientific, technological, and path of promoting developmental peace for the
comprehensive national strength has leapt to Middle East” (Zhong, 2019Zhong (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Starting from the
dialectical relationship between development and ging markets and developing economies (IMF,
peace, China highlights the fundamental role of 2022). The Middle East, with a relatively high na-
development in resolving conflicts in the Middle tural birth rate, is one of the most populated areas
East. Indeed, domestic and regional conflicts in among developing countries. The average unemp-
developing countries and regions are primarily loyment rate of the Middle East amounted to 9.8%,
a result of the “development deficit” problem, two times higher than that of the world (Interna-
which is embodied by sluggish economic growth, tional Labour Organization, 2022). The high birth
backward infrastructure, a high unemployment and unemployment rates and low economic growth
rate, and a high inflation rate. rates have triggered successive economic and social
contradictions in the Middle East, posing an even more severe threat to the fragile peace in the regi- China’s “Developmental Peace” Proposal in on. the Middle East Second, democratic governance of the US and
China’s proposal of “developmental peace” in the Europe faces hurdles. In the post-conflict era, Midd-
Middle East is an experience that the Communist le Eastern countries did not move towards stability
Party of China has learned from its domestic go- or peace. Instead, many of them underwent a “se-
vernance, including its domestic development and cond revolution”. Worse, some old conflicts rolled
opening-up. The concept of “common development” back due to the new geopolitical gaming (Hudson,
with Chinese characteristics has broadened from do- 2013: 37; 43). In light of the failures of “democratic
mestic to international, benefiting the Chinese peop- peace”, Middle Eastern countries turned to alterna-
le to people worldwide (Guo & Gao, 2017: 60-65). tive means of realizing peace, that is, economic and
social development. After the decade-long “Arab Spring”, it seems that transitional Arab states have
The proposal of “developmental returned to their historical origin, and more Midd-
peace” combines the agenda le Eastern countries are showing interest in the
of economic development with Chinese initiative of “developmental peace”.
conflict settlement. The proposal of “developmental peace” com-
bines the agenda of economic development with
As a rising economy among the permanent conflict settlement. Integrating the forces in the
members of the UN Security Council, China pra- international community and regional actors al-
ctices “developmental peace” to the best of its abi- lows all members to play the role of responsible
lity and promotes the peaceful development of the stakeholders. Moreover, it combines strategic goals
countries along the “Belt and Road”. China advo- with operational and tactical goals, integrating pea-
cates “developmental peace” in the Middle East for ce, politics, humanitarianism, development and the
reasons as follows: process of human rights. It attempts to break away
First, the “development deficit” problem in the from the war economy by promoting the capacity
Middle East demands prompt resolution. Accor- building of the new government and economic
ding to the International Monetary Fund, there are growth to reduce the possibility of renewed confli-
only 39 developed economies today but 154 emer- cts (Olivier, 2013: 115; 118).
On September 21, 2022, the Second Middle East Security Forum was held in Diaoyutai State Guesthouse in Beijing. (Tengxun Net, 2022Tengxun Net (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)
China argues that lack of development is the ter development. In March 2021, Foreign Minis-
root cause of the Middle Eastern conflicts. In ter Wang Yi put forward a “five-point initiative”
2019, the global average unemployment rate was on achieving security and stability in the Middle
5.4%, and the countries in the Middle East were East: 1. advocating mutual respect, 2. upholding
twice that of the world, ranking first in all regions. equity and justice, 3. achieving non-proliferation,
In 2020, the unemployment rate in the Middle 4. jointly fostering collective security, and 5. acce-
East soared to 11.7%, ranking the highest among lerating developmental cooperation.
all regions in the world. Development issues such “Developmental cooperation” is actually an
as unemployment are the top priority for these economic means for security ends, the same as
countries. According to the 2021 Global Multidi- “developmental peace”. Wang Yi stressed that
mensional Poverty Index, launched by the UNDP, long-term stability in the Middle East requires de-
among 109 countries, Multidimensional Poverty velopment, cooperation and accommodation. The
Population is as large as 1.3 billion, representing international community should unite to overco-
21.7% of these countries’ total population, and me COVID-19 and achieve economic and social
about half are children under the age of 18 (Ox- recovery as soon as possible. Efforts should be
ford Poverty & Human Development Initiative made to combine different resource endowments
and United Nations Development Program, 2021: of Middle East countries, help post-conflict count-
4-5). ries in reconstruction, support diversified econo-
China advocates that the easiest way to halt war mic growth of oil-producing countries, and help
and stop conflict is to eradicate poverty and fos- the Middle East countries develop and achieve re-
vitalization (China Daily, 2021China Daily (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). The China-Arab It is common sense that security and develop-
Reform and Development Forum and the Middle ment are two sides of a coin, and the former is the
East Security Forum are two important mechanis- basis of the latter. However, “developmental pea-
ms for China’s “developmental peace” initiative. ce” may reverse the relations, for it argues that “de-
On September 21, 2022, the Second Middle velopment” may be potentially a precondition for
East Security Forum was held in Beijing. Vice Fo- security. From theory to practice, “developmen-
reign Minister Deng Li attended the opening cere- tal peace” has become an important approach to
mony and delivered a keynote speech, proposing China’s participation in the peace initiative in the
“promoting security through development”, the Middle East. In July 2018, during his visit to the
essence being “developmental peace”. United Arab Emirates, President Xi Jinping poin-
ted out, when meeting with Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, then Vice President and
Achieving peace through Prime Minister of UAE, and Crown Prince of Abu
development has become an Dhabi, Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nah-
important part of communication yan, that “at present, the peoples in West Asia and
between China and Middle Eastern Northern Africa all long for security and stability.
countries since the outbreak of “the Apparently, it is an unstoppable trend to pursue
Arab Spring”. peace, reform and development. China would like
to deepen its bilateral strategic cooperation and seek a governance path featuring developmental
“To achieve long-term stability in the region, peace in the Middle East” (People’s Daily, 2018People’s Daily (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).
China is willing to assist the Middle East countries It was the first time the Chinese government has
within its capacity in terms of post-COVID-19 spoken of “developmental peace” in terms of a pe-
economic recovery and food and energy security, ace initiative in the Middle East, which was echo-
and support countries in the region to improve ed by the UAE counterparts.
people’s livelihood and maintain stability. China In February 2019, when meeting Mohammed
is willing to strengthen the docking of develop- bin Salman, the visiting Crown Prince of the UAE,
ment strategies with the Middle East countries, President Xi pointed out, “China is ready to work
integrate their respective production capacity te- with Saudi Arabia to jointly explore a governan-
chnology and resource market advantages, jointly ce path in the Middle East featuring the moves of
build the ‘Belt and Road’ with high quality, and promoting “developmental peace” and working
promote free trade negotiations. China is willing toward a solid foundation for peace and stability
to strengthen cooperation in such fields as green in the region through jointly building the Belt and
innovation, food and energy, health, investment Road and strengthening regional development co-
and finance based on traditional cooperation in operation” (Xinhuanet, 2019Xinhuanet (2019). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Achieving “peace”
trade, energy and infrastructure to promote susta- through “development” has become an important
inable security with sustainable development and part of communication between China and Midd-
lay a solid foundation for Middle East security” le Eastern countries since the outbreak of “the
(China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2022China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Arab Spring”.
Chinese State Councilor and Foreign Minister Wang Yi meets with his Syrian counterpart Faisal Mekdad in Damascus, Syria, July 17, 2021. (Xinhua, 2021Xinhua (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)
The Eastern Mediterranean is an important which started in 2011 and is still ongoing (ClearIAS,
arena for China to put its “developmental peace” 2017). The already fragile health system is overstretc-
into practice. The paper chooses Syria, Palestine hed with additional strain from the COVID-19 pan-
and Lebanon and sees how China implements its demic. As the crisis enters its twelfth year, 6.9 million
“developmental peace” proposal. The three count- people remain internally displaced, and 5.6 million
ries are all oil-poor, war-torn and regime-fragile have fled the country as refugees, the vast majority to
Arab countries located in the Eastern Mediterra- neighbouring countries (World Health Organization,
nean. Thus, it is easier to have a comparative study. n.d.).
Unlike other permanent members of the UN
China’s “Developmental Peace” Proposal in Syria Security Council, China does not have troops in
Syria, nor does it seek geopolitical interest or sphere
Syria is experiencing a protracted political and soci- of influence in the war-torn country. Chinese
o-economic crisis that has severely deteriorated living government nominated a special envoy for the
conditions. Outside powers are involved in Syria’s ci- Syrian issue in 2016 who has been exploring peace
vil war through proxy means. The civil war in Syria proposals through joint international efforts. China’s
is regarded as the most brutal conflict in the world, special envoy to Syria, Xie Xiaoyan, explained China’s
position on the Syrian issue at the point of the 10th UN framework. In the second stage of political
anniversary of the Syrian proxy war. Xie said China reconciliation and economic reconstruction, China
calls for a comprehensive approach from political, attempts to play a bigger role. In the field of post-war
security, humanitarian and reconstruction aspects reconstruction, China steadily carries out various
to help settle the Syrian crisis once and for all (Liu, exchanges in which Chinese enterprises participate in
2021). Unlike Russia, the US and European powers, the reconstruction of Syria, and Chinese enterprises
China emphasizes economic reconstruction for also hold an active attitude of participation.
political reconciliation, arguing that the international China encourages its enterprises to participate
community should seek common ground while in the implementation of its “developmental peace”
putting aside differences. Economic recovery might proposal in Syria. As early as May 2017, the Chi-
be the breakthrough for the Syrian political deadlock. na-Arab Exchange Association hosted a seminar
titled “Security Situation and Reconstruction Opportunities in Syria - Briefing on the China-Arab China’s “developmental peace” Exchange Association’s Visit to Syria”, which rele-
is initiated by the Chinese ased various reconstruction projects in Syria, such
government but is implemented as food, water, infrastructure reconstruction, ele-
by Chinese state-owned and ctricity, building materials, and agriculture, which
private enterprises, a model of were positively responded to and supported by the
“the government setting the stage participating enterprises. In May 2017, the Chi-
while the enterprises are acting”. na-Syria Enterprises Matchmaking and Exchange
Conference, organized by the China Council for the
In the past decade, China has been calling for Promotion of International Trade, was held in Bei-
peace, protecting the Syrian people’s interests, and jing. More than 150 Chinese and Syrian enterprises
lifting sanctions on Syria imposed by the United from the infrastructure, energy, manufacturing and
States and Europe for the sake of the country’s other fields of China and Syria attended the con-
humanitarian situations, such as tackling the ference, which was the first time for China-Syria
Covid-19 pandemic. Thus, China’s “developmental enterprises to communicate with each other.
peace” initiative is down-top, starting from the grass- In August 2017, more than 20 Chinese enterp-
root level of economic and social reconstruction. rises participated in the 59th Damascus Interna-
China’s funding and announcement of giving tional Expo, and the products on display covered
humanitarian aid to Syrians is a case in point. Since energy, building materials, automobiles, furnitu-
it does not have proxies, China cooperates with the re, mechanical equipment, household appliances
United Nations and the Syrian central government and other fields (Economic and Business Depart-
for emergency humanitarian assistance and ment of the People’s Republic of China Embassy
economic cooperation (Ding & Sun, 2021: 57). in Syria, 2017). From September 6 to 15, 2018,
The Syrian conflict is divided into two stages. In the 60th Damascus International Fair, the largest
the first stage of military hostility, China adhered to and oldest trade and industrial exhibition in the
its principle of non-interference in Syrian internal Middle East, was held. As many as 1,722 enterp-
affairs and sought conflict resolution through the rises from 48 countries participated in the fair.
Syrian President Bashar al-Assad holds talks with Chinese State Councilor and Foreign Minister Wang Yi in Damascus, the capital of Syria on July 17, 2021. (CGTN, 2021CGTN (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)
Chinese and other entrepreneurs from all over the agreement on the transfer of assistance on behalf
world saw important business opportunities in Sy- of the Chinese government and the International
ria (Wang & Zheng, 2018Wang & Zheng (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). China’s “developmental Committee of the Red Cross. Per the agreement,
peace” is initiated by the Chinese government but on May 15, 2017, the Chinese government
is implemented by Chinese state-owned and priva- provided assistance to support the International
te enterprises, a model of “the government setting Committee of the Red Cross in providing water,
the stage while the enterprises are acting”. food, temporary shelter and medical services to
China also strengthens humanitarian assistance displaced persons and returning refugees in Syria.
to implement its “developmental peace” proposal. At present, the relevant assistance projects have
On May 15, 2017, the Chinese Ambassador been successfully implemented. On November 20,
to Syria, Qi Qianjin and the Director of the 2017, the Chinese Ambassador to Syria and Syrian
Syrian Plan and the International Cooperation representatives jointly attended the handover
Agency signed, on behalf of the Chinese and ceremony of China’s emergency food aid to
Syrian governments, an economic and technical Syria at the port of Latakia (The Economic and
cooperation agreement on providing emergency Commercial Office of the Embassy of the People’s
assistance to Syria (for humanitarian purposes). Republic of China in Syria, 2017). Humanitarian
China offered emergency food aid to Syria as well. assistance is important in China’s “developmental
On February 14, 2018, Ambassador Qi Qianjin peace” proposal in Syria.
and the representative of the International On August 16, 2018, the Chinese Ambassador
Committee of the Red Cross in Syria inked an to Syria and the Director of the Syrian Plan and
the International Cooperation Agency signed two Syria, 2020).
exchanges of letters on humanitarian assistance China’s “developmental peace” proposal is
cooperation on behalf of the two governments, successful. It encourages Chinese enterprises
involving public transport, food, housing and to get involved because they can get economic
other fields. On October 10, 2018, the Chargé benefits, and more importantly, these enterprises’
d’affaires ad interim of the Chinese Embassy economic engagement in Syria is also conducive
in Syria and the Deputy Minister of the Syrian to Syrian political reconciliation. In July 2021,
Ministry of Electricity jointly attended the Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi visited the
handover ceremony of China’s assistance to Syria’s Middle East, and Syria was his first stop. In
power equipment project held in Syria and signed Damascus, Wang summarized a “four-point
the handover certificates on behalf of the Chinese proposal” for the Syrian issue: first, persisting
and Syrian governments (Sina News, 2018Sina News (2018). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). in respecting Syria’s sovereignty and territorial
integrity. Second, letting the Syrian people decide their future and destiny. Third, adhering to the
Chinese enterprises’ economic principle of putting people’s livelihood first,
engagement in Syria is also accelerating reconstruction, and immediately
conducive to Syrian political lifting all unilateral sanctions and economic
reconciliation. blockades against Syria. Fourth, persisting in
effectively combating terrorism (Foreign Ministry
Economic and technological assistance is of the People’s Republic of China, 2021). Among
important to China’s “developmental peace” the “four-point proposal”, the third point reflects
proposal in Syria. In March 2020, the Chinese China’s “developmental peace” ideation.
Ambassador to Syria, Feng Biao, and the Director of In “Joint Statement of the Consultations of
the Syrian Plan and the International Cooperation Deputy Foreign Ministers/Special Envoys of
Agency, Imad Sabni, signed an Agreement on BRICS Countries on the Middle East and North
Economic and Technical Cooperation between Africa,” May 2022, China and other BRICS
China and Syria. Feng said that China attaches members stressed that the key to solving the Syrian
great importance to and actively promotes the issue is to follow the “Syrian-led, Syrian-owned,
development of China-Syria friendly relations. UN-facilitated political process” steered by the
Since the outbreak of the Syrian crisis, China has UN Security Council, respect Syria’s sovereignty
actively provided humanitarian assistance to the and territorial integrity, and to support the role of
Republic and carried out technical training for the UN as the main channel of mediation. China
its personnel, which is a concrete manifestation and other developing countries emphasized the
of their friendship. China is willing to continue importance of prioritizing people’s livelihoods
to provide assistance and support to Syria and accelerating early recovery projects (Foreign
within its capabilities, actively participate in the Ministry of the People’s Republic of China, 2022).
reconstruction, and strive to promote the steady In implementing its “developmental peace”
development of China-Syria friendly cooperation initiative, China proposes to “give priority to
(Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in people’s livelihoods and economic recovery”.
Xi Jinping and Mahmoud Abbas exchanged views on the bilateral relationship and other issues of common concern on July 18, 2017. The two sides signed a range of agreements following the presidents’ meeting. (CGTN, 2017CGTN (2017). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)
China’s “Developmental Peace” Proposal in in the Middle East by proceeding from economic
the Palestinian-Israeli Conflict cooperation. In July 2017, President Xi Jinping
met with Mahmoud Abbas, President of Palestine,
The Chinese government argues that the Palestinian during which President Xi put forward a “four-point
issue is the most fundamental in the Middle Eastern proposal” on the solution to the Palestine-Israeli issue:
conflict resolution; the “Two-State Solution” is the efforts should be made to advance political settlement
only realistic way to solve the issue. The parties based on the “Two-State Solution” steadfastly and
concerned in the Palestinian question and the to restart peace talks as early as possible. Further
international community should make practical attention must be paid to development to promote
efforts to promote the “Two-State Solution” based cooperation between Palestine and Israel. To China,
on United Nations resolutions and the Arab peace both Palestine and Israel are important partners along
initiative. the “Belt and Road”. China stands ready to carry out
As for the solution to the Palestine-Israeli issue, mutually beneficial collaboration following the idea
China also suggests seeking common ground while of developmental peace and continue to support
reserving differences, enhancing political mutual Palestine’s cause to accelerate its development. China
trust and ultimately advancing the peace process proposed to launch a tripartite dialogue mechanism
with Palestine and Israel to advance major projects East and signed the handover memorandum with
to assist the Palestinian side (People’s Daily, 2017People’s Daily (2017). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). the Agency’s representative in Syria. Feng said
Arguably the Chinese initiative of “developmental that since the outbreak of the epidemic, China has
peace” puts forward new thoughts and ideas for provided many batches of medical materials to
solving the Palestine-Israeli conflicts. Palestinian refugees in Palestine, Lebanon, Jordan
and other countries through the Agency and has also sent medical groups to Palestine to share China’s anti-Covid-19 experience. Feng stressed
To achieve “developmental peace”, that in the future, China was willing to strengthen
the Palestine authority should be cooperation with the Agency further and make
empowered and consolidate its greater contributions to improving the well-being
capacity building. of the Palestinian people (Embassy of the People’s
Republic of China in Syria, 2021). After the outbreak
In 2021, Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi had a of the Palestinian-Israeli conflict in May 2021,
new proposal for a solution to the issue. He raised the China, as the rotating President of the Security
following three ideas: first, the Palestinian National Council, actively promoted the Security Council
Authority should be strengthened, and it should be to issue a strong voice for cease-fire and cessation.
empowered to exercise its sovereign functions in China provided $1 million in humanitarian
security, finance and other fields to achieve effective assistance to Palestine and contributed $1 million
control over autonomy and the occupied territories. more to the United Nations Relief and Works
Second, the international community should support Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
the Palestinian government to strengthen unity, (Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2021Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).
achieve internal reconciliation through consultation China nominated Ambassador Wang Shijie as
and dialogue, and form a unified negotiating position the Middle East special envoy of China in 2002, the
on resolving the Palestinian issue. Third, Palestine first one in China’s Foreign Ministry. As one of its
and Israel should be encouraged to restart peace efforts for diplomatic mediation, on July 15, 2021,
talks based on the “Two-State Solution” (Sohu, 2021Sohu (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). the Chinese government held an online seminar
Judging by the “three-point proposal”, it is apparent for Palestinian-Israeli peace talks. Representatives
that a weak government of Palestine is not conducive from the Executive Committee of the Palestine
to the peace process. To achieve “developmental Liberation Organization, the People’s Struggle
peace”, the Palestine authority should be empowered Front, the Israeli Minister of Justice and initiator
and consolidate its capacity building. of the “Geneva Initiative”, and activists from
Palestinian refugees are the central consideration both Palestinian and Israeli non-governmental
of China in implementing its “developmental organizations attended the meeting. In his speech
peace” initiative. On January 13, 2021, Ambassador at the Seminar of Palestinian Israeli Peacekeepers,
Feng Biao attended the handover ceremony of State Councilor and Foreign Minister Wang Yi
anti-COVID-19 materials provided by the Chinese pointed out that the Palestinian humanitarian
Government to the United Nations Relief and situation was worrying and seriously eroding the
Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near social foundation of peace.
Palestinian Health Minister Mai al-Kaila meets with the Chinese medical expert team in the West Bank city of Ramallah, on June 10, 2020. (Nobani, A./Xinhua, 2020Nobani, A./Xinhua (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)
China would continue to provide humanitarian equal dialogue based on the “Two-State Solution”.
assistance to Palestine and support the work of the In his congratulatory message, Xi appeals that the
United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine international community should continue to help
Refugees in the Near East (Chinese Ministry of the Palestinian people fight against COVID-19 and
Foreign Affairs, 2021). China is not a member of the effectively improve the Palestinian economy, people’s
Middle East Quartet (the US, Russia, Europe Union livelihood and humanitarian conditions (The Office of
and the United Nations). Thus, it prefers to play a the People’s Republic of China in the State of Palestine,
role in humanitarian and economic assistance in its 2021). That is a reflection of Beijing’s “developmental
mediation endeavors. peace” as well.
On November 29, 2021, the United Nations held China’s “developmental peace” initiative is
the commemoration conference of the International welcomed by the special envoys of BRICS. In May
Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People. 2022, China and other BRICS countries’ Middle
President Xi sent a congratulatory message to the Eastern special envoys issued a joint declaration
conference, as the Chinese leader has done for the past encouraging Palestine and Israel to resume peace
ten consecutive years. President Xi pointed out that the talks based on a negotiated “Two-State Solution”.
international community should adhere to objectivity These special envoys called on the international
and impartiality, advocate inclusiveness and mutual community to intensify its efforts in support of UN-
understanding, and take the 30th anniversary of the led international peace conferences to achieve a
Madrid Peace Conference as an opportunity to provide comprehensive, lasting and just settlement that allows
more help for the Palestinian and Israeli sides to restart Israel and Palestine to live side by side in peace and
security (Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2022Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). then, Lebanese politics has been polarized, and society
In the joint declaration, China, in particular, has been divided. Affected by sectarian discord,
stressed “developmental peace” and underscored that the Lebanese economy is almost at a standstill with
efforts should be made to leverage respective strengths, high inflation, serious currency devaluation and
actively promote peace talks, and help Palestine soaring unemployment. From October 2019 to June
contain the COVID pandemic, develop its economy, 2021, food prices in Lebanon increased by 404%
ease its humanitarian situation and improve its (The Geopolitics, 2021The Geopolitics (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). Facing such a security and
people’s welfare. China commended the extensive work economic predicament, China does not launch political
carried out by UNRWA to alleviate the humanitarian mediation among Lebanese political parties; instead, it
situation of the Palestinian people and called on the seeks to play a positive role through “developmental
international community to provide developmental peace”.
assistance to support UNRWA activities to enable it to As Chinese Ambassador to Saudi Arabia Chen
increase its reach amongst the Palestinian community Weiqing wrote in an article titled “China’s Commitment
(Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2022Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). From to its People Behind Remarkable Development,”
the text, we can find that in “developmental peace”, China’s argument for “development and peace” at home
capacity building is key to the peace process. The weak is based on its contemporary development (Chen,
regime of Palestine, like that of Somalia, Yemen, Libya, 2021). As the theme of the times and the orientation of
Syria and Lebanon, may not be able to propel economic national policies have changed, China has experienced
development, thus hindering political reconciliation as three stages in dealing with the relationship between
well. development and security, namely, survival-oriented
On March 10, 2022, the Chinese Special Envoy for development (from the founding of the PRC to the
the Middle East, Zhai Jun, visited Palestine. President dawn of the Reform and Opening-up), development-
Abbas of Palestine met Zhai and his delegation at oriented security (from the Reform and Opening-up to
the Presidential Palace in Ramallah. The two sides the start of 18th National Congress of the CPC in 2012),
exchanged views on bilateral relations, the Palestinian equal emphasis on development and security (since the
question and other international and regional hotspot 18th National Congress of the CPC ), and promoting
issues (The Office of the People’s Republic of China high-quality development (Zhong, 2022: 74). Before
in the State of Palestine, 2022). The China-proposed China’s Reform and Opening-up was launched in
“three-point” on the Palestinian-Israeli conflict centers 1979, China was politically divided and ideologically
on “developmental peace”, with development and controversial at home. Deng Xiaoping’s proposal for
capacity building as the crux, was welcomed by the “economic development first” finally became the
Palestinian counterpart. consensus of all factions. This has become the historical
legacy for China to carry out its “developmental peace”
China’s “Developmental Peace” Proposal in proposal in less developed countries.
Lebanon Economic cooperation and humanitarian assistance
are China’s tools to promote Lebanese peace. On the one
Lebanon was stable and prosperous in the 1950s and hand, China is the major trading partner of Lebanon,
1960s, but the brutal civil war lasting from 1975 to and it accounts for 40% of Lebanon’s imports, amoun-
1990 caused a heavy loss of a quarter million. Since ting to $2 billion per year (The Geopolitics, 2021The Geopolitics (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.).
China’s military donated to the Lebanese Army medical supplies needed in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic. (Xinhua, 2020Nobani, A./Xinhua (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)
China has recently begun investing in the Republic’s by $123 million (89.6%) from $137 million to $261
power grids and highways. Railways are an essenti- million, while imports decreased by $-1.76 million
al part of the country’s infrastructure as well. China (-23.9%) from $7.35 million to $5.59 million (The
began operating railways linking Beirut with Tripoli OEC World, 2022). China’s business activities are
in 2019. It was further linked to Damascus in Syria, market-oriented but are encouraged by the Chinese
which has created jobs and reduced unemployment. government to expand its political influence.
Promoted by “developmental peace”, China can conne- On the other hand, China provides humanitarian
ct roads and railways to realize its BRI vision. Hariri’s assistance to Lebanon. In August 2020, Beirut was
government showed signs of cooperation and FDI inf- struck by a deadly chemical explosion that displaced
lows in this region, with China being the best choice approximately 300,000 inhabitants and killed over
(The Geopolitics, 2021The Geopolitics (2021). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). 150 civilians. The one-thousand Chinese UN pea-
As a poverty-stricken regime, Lebanon is proacti- cekeepers quickly organized themselves and began
ve in cooperating with China on the Belt and Road, rescue operations. China offered $1 million in emer-
expecting to achieve economic takeoff. In August gency aid as well. At the video conference on interna-
2022, China exported $261 million and imported tional assistance to Lebanon held on August 9, 2020,
$5.59 million from Lebanon, resulting in a positive Zhai Jun, Special Envoy of the Chinese Government
trade balance of $255 million. Between August 2021 for the Middle East, announced that China would
and August 2022 the exports of China have increased provide further assistance to Lebanon to support the
Republic in treating the injured people in the exp- and undertake long overdue economic reforms to
losion, and provide assistance to families suffering address the severe economic challenges faced by the
huge losses or displacement (Guangming Net, 2020Guangming Net (2020). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.). people of Lebanon (Chinese Ministry of Foreign Af-
The Lebanese National Higher Conservatory of fairs, 2022). China’s “developmental peace” proposal,
Music, funded by China, is a token of China’s “deve- starting from improving people’s well-being and the
lopmental peace” as well. The conservatory began its government’s capacity building, might provide a new
construction in December 2020 and will take three trajectory for Lebanese political reconciliation.
years to finish. With an expected cost of $62 milli- Eastern Mediterranean and China’s “Developmental Peace” Proposal in
China’s “developmental peace” Prospect
proposal, starting from improving
people’s well-being and the As the only country in the world that has enshrined
“adhering to the path of peaceful development” in its government’s capacity, might provide Constitution, China has never been actively involved a new trajectory for Lebanese political in the Middle East war, occupied an inch of the reconciliation. Middle East, nor engaged in proxy wars. Up to now, China has solved the land border issue with 12 of its
on, the conservatory covers an area of 39,000 square 14 neighboring countries by peaceful means (Wu &
meters with a capacity of 1,200 people. The conserva- Zhang, 2022: 54). President Xi Jinping asked during
tory, near Lebanon’s capital Beirut, will be a center of his visit to Egypt in 2016: “The Middle East is a fertile
attraction for the Middle East region, said Lebanese land. We are saddened that so far there has been no
Prime Minister Najib Mikati (Global Times. 2022). escape from war and conflict. Where is the Middle
In cooperation with other developing powers, East headed?” (Liu, 2022: 19). Chinese answer to the
China attempts to carry out its “developmental peace” question is: “developmental peace” might be one of the
initiative in Lebanon through a multilateral arena. In solutions.
May 2022, China and other BRICS members echoed Since the Eastern Mediterranean is a conflict-prone
their support for Lebanon’s efforts to safeguard stabi- region, it is a key area for the practice of “developmental
lity, security, sovereignty, political independence and peace”. The rivalry between the US and Russia in Syria,
territorial integrity, and the Lebanese people’s rights the Cold War between Israel and Iran, the disputes
to pursue a development path suited to their natio- between Palestine and Israel and the security deficit
nal conditions. The BRICS special envoys for Middle facing other transitional Arab countries in the region
Eastern Affairs unanimously called upon the inter- are all closely related to the “development deficit”.
national community to continuously assist Lebanon In January 2016, “improving people’s livelihood”
without political conditions to help the Mediterra- was mentioned three times in China’s Arab Policy
nean Republic restore political, social and economic Paper, which also promised that “China is willing to
stability as soon as possible. They welcome the staf- cooperate with Arab states to promote the new type
f-level agreement signed between the Government of of cooperation mechanism featuring openness and
Lebanon and the IMF to take all necessary measures reciprocity, mutual benefit and win-win results.
Lebanese Prime Minister Najib Mikati, Culture Minister Mohammad Mortada and the Chinese ambassador to Lebanon Qian Minjian visit the construction site of the China-funded National Higher Conservatory of Music in Dbayeh near Beirut on October 6, 2022. (Xinhua, 2022Xinhua (2022). The source article does not provide a separate full bibliographic entry for this citation.)
According to Arab states’ needs, China will continue the “Belt and Road” by China and Syria, Lebanon and
to assist Arab states through bilateral and multilateral Palestine.
channels, to help them improve self-development First, to the best of its ability, the Chinese government
capability and people’s livelihood” (Foreign Ministry provides development aid to unstable countries in
of the People’s Republic of China, 2016). the Eastern Mediterranean, which helps alleviate the
In terms of mechanism, China and the Eastern tension in the region. The political factions in the
Mediterranean countries are strengthening countries are short of consensus in terms of national
their communication on governance, making development paths, and their enduring economic and
“developmental peace” a common vision and social problems also aggravate their upheaval and
ideation. The spirit of “developmental peace” can that of the region. China’s developmental aid to these
be seen in the “Sino-Arab Cooperation Forum” and countries, which is conducive to alleviating regional
various documents concerning the joint building of conflicts, is a manifestation of “developmental peace”.
Second, China actively participates in the Conclusion
capacity building of the governments in the Eastern
Mediterranean. The Chinese idea of “developmental China and the Eastern Mediterranean countries all
peace” insists that government laxity often leads to belong to the developing world, sharing similarities
chaos and conflicts, and the enhancement of capacity in national conditions. Unlike developed countries,
building of the governments of middle and small which tend to define security by external threats, the
countries contributes to their internal cohesion and main task of developing countries is development,
stability. China’s support to the capacity building of and their domestic socio-economic challenges are
Eastern Mediterranean countries includes support to enormous. Therefore, the latter’s security is defined
the capacity building. It includes the target countries’ by development (Zhong, 2013: 16). In the context
capacity for law enforcement, police training and that the idea of “democratic peace”, driven by Western
stability maintenance. powers, has failed to achieve substantive headway, the
Third, China offers humanitarian aid to Eastern idea of “developmental peace” is expected by Eastern
Mediterranean countries. After the outbreak of the Mediterranean countries. Based on its experience of
“Arab Spring”, the traditional and new hotspot issues reform and opening up, the China-proposed idea of
in Syria, Lebanon and Palestine remain more or less “developmental peace” is a product of thinking over
unsolved. After ten years of chaos, the situations possible solutions to regional conflicts. Although this
are still full of uncertainties. The assistance that idea has not taken shape and remains to be tested
China provided to the conflicted countries under and enhanced in practice, it at least functions as an
the frameworks of the UN, the Arab League and the alternative for transitional countries to restore peace.
African Union and through the platform of bilateral It is more inclusive, for it embraces plural values and
cooperation promoted peace and development in the competitive peace initiatives, arguing that each country
region and helped to de-escalate the hotspot issues in can choose its political and economic institutions
the region. according to its national situation (He, 2017: 28).
Finally, efforts are needed to improve the idea of The Eastern Mediterranean countries are
“developmental peace” in practice. In implementing confronted with “growing pains”. The security
the idea of “developmental peace”, China will be more and development problems in the Eastern
open and inclusive. Apart from China, other actors, Mediterranean cannot be solved immediately. The
such as the United States Agency for International economic governance advocated by “developmental
Development, the Official Development Assistance peace” and the West-led “democratic peace” are
of Japan, the Development Assistance Committee not necessarily mutually exclusive. Although
of the Organization for Economic Co-operation underdevelopment is a major cause of the complex
and Development and the Official Development and accumulated security problem in the Eastern
Assistance of the European Union are also cooperative Mediterranean, it is never the sole one. Thus it is
partners of China in fulfilling “developmental peace” imperative for the international community, acting
in practice (Sun & Zhang, 2019: 128-129). Only when from the perspective of “taking comprehensive
outside powers can complement and coordinate measures”, to apply economic, political and military
can peace and stability be realized in the Eastern means to build a community of shared interests and
Mediterranean. a shared future in the region.
References Foreign Ministry of the People’s Republic of China. (2016,
